                                           
                                           
                                           
                                           
                              CHAPTER TWO
                                           
                                Nissaya
                                ~~~~~~~
                                           
   
   The Dhamma and Vinaya impinge in such detail on so many areas of 
   one's life that no new bhikkhu can be expected to master them in a 
   short time. For this reason, the Buddha arranged for a period of 
   apprenticeship -- called //nissaya//, or dependence -- in which 
   every newly ordained bhikkhu must train under the guidance of an 
   experienced bhikkhu for at least five years before he can be 
   considered competent to look after himself.
     
     This apprenticeship has formed the human context in which the 
   practice of the Buddha's teachings has been passed down for the past 
   2,600 years. To overlook it is to miss one of the basic parameters 
   of the life of the Dhamma and Vinaya. Thus we will discuss it here 
   first, before going on to the individual training rules of the 
   Patimokkha.
     
     Dependence is of two sorts: dependence on one's preceptor 
   (//upajjhaya//) and dependence on a teacher (//acariya//). The 
   relationships are similar -- and in many details, identical -- so 
   the following discussion will use the word "mentor" to cover both 
   preceptor and teacher wherever the pattern applies to both, and will 
   distinguish them only where the patterns differ.
     
     //Choosing a mentor//. Before ordination, one must choose a 
   bhikkhu to act as one's preceptor. The Mahavagga (I.36-37) gives a 
   long list of qualifications a bhikkhu must meet before he can act as 
   a preceptor, while the Commentary divides the list into two levels: 
   ideal and minimal qualifications. A bhikkhu who lacks the minimal 
   qualifications incurs a dukkata if he acts as a preceptor; a bhikkhu 
   who meets the minimal but lacks the ideal qualifications is not an 
   ideal person to give guidance, but he incurs no penalty in doing so.
     
     //The ideal qualifications:// The preceptor should have an 
   arahant's virtue, concentration, discernment, release, and knowledge 
   of release; and should be able to train another person to the same 
   level of attainment. He should have faith, a sense of shame, fear of 
   evil, persistence in the practice, and quick mindfulness (according 
   to the Subcommentary, this means that he is constantly mindful of 
   whatever mental object is before the mind). He should be free of 
   heavy and light offenses and be possessed of right view. (This last 
   point, the Commentary says, means that he does not adhere to the 
   extremes of eternalism or annihilationism.) He should be competent 
   to tend to a sick pupil, or to find someone who will tend to him, 
   and to allay dissatisfaction in a pupil who wants to leave the 
   celibate life.
     
     The Mahavagga does not say outright that these are ideal, as 
   opposed to minimal, qualifications, but the Commentary offers as 
   proof the fact that one of a pupil's duties is to try to allay any 
   dissatisfaction that may arise in his preceptor. If all preceptors 
   were arahants, no case of this sort would ever arise, and there 
   would be no need to mention it. Thus the Commentary concludes that 
   arahantship, although ideal in a preceptor, is not necessary.
     
     //The minimal qualifications//: The preceptor must be learned and 
   intelligent. According to the Commentary, this means that he knows 
   enough of the Dhamma and Vinaya to govern a following and is 
   intelligent enough to know what is and is not an offense. He must be 
   competent enough to allay any anxiety a pupil may have over the 
   rules, know what is and is not an offense, what is a light offense, 
   what is a heavy offense, and how an offense may be removed. He must 
   have detailed knowledge of both Patimokkhas (the one for the 
   bhikkhus and the one for the bhikkhunis) and be able to train the 
   pupil in the bhikkhus' customs (Com.: this means that he knows the 
   Khandhakas), in the basic rules of the chaste life (Subcom.: he 
   knows both Vibhangas), the higher Dhamma, and the higher Vinaya. He 
   must be able to dissuade his pupil from adhering to a wrong view, or 
   find someone who will help dissuade him. And -- the most basic 
   requirement -- he must have been ordained as a bhikkhu for ten years 
   or more.
     
     If, for some reason, the new bhikkhu lives in a separate monastery 
   from his preceptor, he must take dependence under a teacher, whose 
   qualifications are precisely the same as those for a preceptor. 
   Since the Mahavagga (I.72.1) gives a dukkata for taking dependence 
   under an unconscientious bhikkhu, the new bhikkhu is allowed four to 
   five days to observe his potential teacher's conduct before taking 
   dependence under him (Mv.I.72.2).
     
     //Taking dependence//. Prior to his ordination -- and usually, as 
   part of the ceremony itself -- the candidate must make a formal 
   request for dependence from his preceptor. The procedure is as 
   follows:
     
     Arranging his upper robe over his left shoulder, leaving his right 
   shoulder bare, he bows down to the preceptor and then, kneeling with 
   his hands palm-to-palm in front of his heart, repeats the following 
   passage three times:
   
         Upajjhayo me bhante hohi,
   
   which means, "Venerable sir, be my preceptor."
   
     If the preceptor responds with any of these words -- //Sahu 
   //(very well), //lahu// (certainly), //opayikam// (all right), 
   //patirupam// (it is proper) or //pasadikena sampadehi// (manage it 
   amiably) -- the dependence has taken hold. The Mahavagga adds that 
   if the preceptor indicates any of these meanings by gesture, that 
   also counts; and according to the Commentary, the same holds true if 
   he makes any equivalent statement. (Mv.I.25.7)
     
     If, after his ordination, the new bhikkhu needs to request 
   dependence from a teacher, the procedure is the same, except that 
   the request he makes three times is this:
   
         Acariyo me bhante hohi; ayasmato nissaya vacchami,
   
   which means, "Venerable sir, be my teacher; I will live in 
   dependence on you." (Mv.I.32.2)
   
     //Duties//. The Mahavagga (I.25.6; 32.1) states that a pupil 
   should regard his mentor as a father; and the mentor, the pupil as 
   his son. It then goes on to delineate this relationship as a set of 
   reciprocal duties.
     
     The pupil's duties to his mentor fall into the following five 
   categories:
     
     1. //Attending to the mentor's personal needs//. The Mahavagga 
   goes into great detail on this topic, giving precise instructions 
   dealing with every conceivable way a pupil can be of service to his 
   mentor. The Vinaya Mukha tries to reduce these duties to a few 
   general principles, but this misses much of what the Mahavagga has 
   to offer, for it is in the details that we can see fine examples of 
   mindfulness in action -- the best way to fold a robe, clean a 
   dwelling, and so forth -- as well as indications of how one can use 
   this aspect of one's training to develop sensitivity to the needs of 
   others. Still, the detailed instructions are so extensive that they 
   would overburden the discussion in this chapter, so I have saved 
   them for Appendix VIII. Here I will simply give them in outline 
   form. The pupil should:
   
      a. Arrange his mentor's toiletries for his morning wash-up.
      
      b. Arrange his seat and food for his morning conjey (if he has 
      any), and clean up after he is finished.
      
      c. Arrange his robes and bowl for his alms round.
      
      d. Follow him on his alms round, if the mentor so desires, and 
      take his robes and bowl when he returns.
      
      e. Arrange his seat and food for his alms meal and clean up 
      afterwards.
      
      f. Prepare his bath. If he goes to the sauna, go with him and 
      attend to his needs.
      
      g. Study the Dhamma and Vinaya from him when he is prepared to 
      teach. (The Mahavagga describes this as "recitation" and 
      "interrogation." Recitation, according to the Commentary, means 
      learning to memorize passages; interrogation, learning to 
      investigate their meaning.)
      
      h. Clean his dwelling and other parts of his dwelling complex, 
      such as the restroom and storage rooms, when they get dirty.
   
   
     2. //Assisting the mentor in any problems he may have with regard 
   to the Dhamma and Vinaya//. The Mahavagga lists the following 
   examples:
   
      a. If the preceptor begins to feel dissatisfaction with the 
      celibate life, the pupil should try to allay that 
      dissatisfaction or find someone else who can.
      
      b. If the preceptor begins to feel anxiety over his conduct 
      with regard to the rules, the pupil should try to allay that 
      anxiety, or find someone else who can.
      
      c. If the preceptor begins to hold to wrong views, the pupil 
      should try to dissuade him from those views or find someone 
      else who can.
      
      d. If the preceptor has committed a sanghadisesa offense, the 
      pupil should -- to the best of his ability -- help with the 
      arrangements for penance, probation, and rehabilitation, or 
      find someone else who can.
      
      e. If the Community is going to carry out a formal act against 
      the mentor, the pupil should try to dissuade them from it. 
      According to the Commentary, this means that he should go to 
      the various members of the Community individually before the 
      meeting and try to dissuade them from going through with the 
      act. If he can't dissuade them, he should try to get them to 
      lessen its severity (say, from an act of banishment to an act 
      of censure). If they are justified in carrying out the act, 
      though, he should not object while the meeting is in progress. 
      Once they have carried out the act, he should concentrate on 
      helping his mentor behave so that they will rescind the act as 
      quickly as possible.
   
   
     3. //Washing, making, and dyeing the mentor's robes.//
     
     4. //Showing loyalty and respect for the mentor//.
     
      a. The pupil should neither give or receive gifts, nor give or 
      receive services to/from others without first obtaining the 
      mentor's permission. According to the Commentary, //others // 
      here refers to people who are on bad terms with the mentor.
      
      b. The pupil should obtain his mentor's permission before 
      entering a village, going to a cemetery (to meditate, says, the 
      Commentary), or leaving the district in which they live. The 
      Commentary notes, though, that if the mentor refuses one's 
      request the first time, one should ask up to two more times, 
      presenting one's reasons as best one can. If the mentor still 
      refuses, the pupil should reflect on his situation. If staying 
      with the mentor is not helping his education and meditation, 
      and if the mentor seems to want him to stay simply to have 
      someone to look after his (the mentor's) needs, the pupil is 
      justified in leaving and taking dependence with a new mentor in 
      his new residence.
   
     5. //Caring for the mentor when he falls ill//, not leaving him 
   until he either recovers or passes away (Mv.I.25).
   
     According to the Commentary, a pupil is freed from these duties 
   when he is ill. Otherwise, he should observe all the above duties to 
   his preceptor as long as he is in dependence on him, and the duties 
   in sections 1-3 even after he is released from dependence, as long 
   as both he and the preceptor are alive and still ordained.
     
     As for the duties to one's teacher, the Commentary lists four 
   types of teachers: the going-forth teacher (the one who gives one 
   the ten precepts during one's ordination ceremony); the acceptance 
   teacher (the one who chants the motion and announcements during the 
   ceremony); the Dhamma teacher (the one who teaches one the Pali 
   language and Canon); and the dependence teacher (the one with whom 
   one lives in dependence). With the dependence teacher, one must 
   observe all the above duties only as long as one is living in 
   dependence on him. As for the other three, one should observe 
   sections 1-3 as long as both parties are alive and still ordained.
     
     The Commentary adds that if the mentor already has a pupil who is 
   performing these duties for him, he may inform his remaining pupils 
   that they need not take them on. This exempts them from having to 
   observe them. If he neglects to do this, the pupil who is performing 
   the duties may inform his fellows that he will take responsibility 
   for looking after the mentor. This also exempts them. Otherwise, 
   they incur a dukkata for every duty they neglect to perform.
   
   
     The mentor's duties to his pupil:
   
     1. //Furthering the pupil's education//, teaching him the Dhamma 
   and Vinaya through recitation, interrogation, exhortation, and 
   instruction.
     
     2. //Providing requisites for the pupil//. If the pupil lacks any 
   of his basic requisites, and the mentor has any to spare, he should 
   make up the lack.
     
     3. //Attending to the pupil's personal needs when he is ill//, 
   performing the services mentioned in section 1 under the pupil's 
   duties to his mentor.
     
     4. //Assisting the pupil in any problems he may have with regard 
   to the Dhamma and Vinaya//, performing the services mentioned in 
   section 2 under the pupil's duties to his mentor.
     
     5. //Teaching the pupil how to wash, make, and dye robes//. If for 
   some reason the pupil is unable to handle these skills, the mentor 
   should find someone who can help the pupil with them.
     
     6. //Caring for the pupil when he falls ill//, not leaving him 
   until he either recovers or passes away (Mv.I.26).
     
     According to the Commentary, the preceptor, going-forth teacher, 
   and acceptance teacher must observe these duties toward the pupil as 
   long as both parties are alive and still ordained. As for the Dhamma 
   and dependence teachers, they must observe these duties only as long 
   as the pupil is living with them.
     
     //Dismissal//. If the pupil does not observe his duties to his 
   mentor, the mentor is empowered to dismiss him. In fact, if the 
   pupil deserves dismissal, the mentor incurs a dukkata if for some 
   reason he does not dismiss him, just as he would for dismissing a 
   pupil who did not deserve it (MV.I.27.5-8). The grounds for 
   dismissal are five:
     
     1. The pupil has no affection for his mentor -- i.e., he shows him 
   no kindness.
     
     2. He has no faith in his mentor -- i.e., he does not regard him 
   as an example to follow.
     
     3. He has no shame in front of his mentor -- i.e., he openly 
   disregards the training rules in his mentor's presence.
     
     4. He has no respect for his mentor -- i.e., he does not listen to 
   what the mentor has to say, and openly disobeys him.
     
     5. He is not developing under his mentor -- the Commentary 
   translates //developing// here as developing a sense of good will 
   for his mentor, but it could also mean developing in his general 
   education and practice of the Dhamma and Vinaya.
     
     
     The Vinaya Mukha notes that the mentor should reflect on his own 
   conduct before dismissing such a pupil. If he has done anything that 
   would give the pupil valid reason for losing affection, etc., he 
   should first correct his own conduct. Only after reflecting that 
   there is no longer anything in his own conduct that would give the 
   pupil valid reason to disregard him should he go ahead with the 
   dismissal.
     
     The Mahavagga mentions each of the following statements as a valid 
   means of dismissal: "I dismiss you." "Don't come back here." "Take 
   away your robes and bowl." "Don't attend to me." It also states that 
   if the mentor makes any of these meanings known by gesture -- e.g., 
   he evicts the pupil from his quarters and throws his robes and bowl 
   out after him -- that also counts as a valid means of dismissal 
   (Mv.I.27.2). The Commentary adds that any statement conveying the 
   same basic meaning as those above would count as well.
     
     Once a pupil has been dismissed, it is his duty to apologize. If 
   he doesn't, he incurs a dukkata (Mv.I.27.3). Once the pupil has 
   apologized, the mentor's duty is to forgive him (Mv.I.27.4). If, 
   however, he sees that the pupil is still unconscientious, he should 
   not take him back, for a mentor who takes on an unconscientious 
   pupil incurs a dukkata (Mv.I.72.1.). Thus the mentor may, if he sees 
   fit, inflict a non-physical punishment on the pupil before taking 
   him back on the original footing, to make sure that he has actually 
   seen the error of his ways. An example of such punishment, mentioned 
   in the Vinaya Mukha, is simply asking to wait to observe the pupil's 
   behavior for a while to see whether or not his apology is sincere.
     
     The Commentary recommends that if the mentor refuses to forgive 
   the pupil, the latter should try to get other bhikkhus in the 
   monastery to intercede for him. If that doesn't work, he should go 
   stay in another monastery and take dependence under a senior bhikkhu 
   there who is on friendly terms with the mentor, in hopes that the 
   mentor will take this as a sign of the pupil's good intentions and 
   will eventually grant his forgiveness.
     
     //Dependence lapses//. Mv.I.36.1 says that if a pupil is staying 
   in dependence with his preceptor, the dependence lapses if:
     
     1. He leaves. According to the Subcommentary, this means that the 
   preceptor goes to spend the night outside the monastery, regardless 
   of whether or not he plans to return.
     
     2. He disrobes.
     
     3. He dies.
     
     4. He goes over to another side -- according to the Commentary, 
   this means that he joins another religion.
     
     In all of the above cases, the commentaries interpret "he" as 
   referring to the preceptor, although it would seem to refer to the 
   pupil as well. This would fit with the passages from the Mahavagga, 
   to be mentioned below, that refer to a new bhikkhu on a journey as 
   not being in dependence. In such cases, the new bhikkhu is most 
   likely the one who has left the preceptor, and his leaving is what 
   has caused the dependence to lapse.
     
     5. He gives a command. This is the one alternative where "he" 
   clearly refers only to the preceptor. The Commentary interprets 
   //command// here as dismissal, as discussed above, although the 
   Vinaya Mukha would also include cases where the preceptor sees that 
   the pupil qualifies to be released from dependence (see below) and 
   tells him so.
     
     In each of these cases, a pupil who is not yet released from 
   dependence must find someone else to take dependence under on that 
   very day, except in the following instances (taken from the 
   Commentary):
     
     -- The preceptor leaves, saying that he will be away only for a 
   day or two, and that the pupil need not ask anyone else for 
   dependence in the meantime. If it so happens that the preceptor's 
   return is delayed, he should send word to his pupil, saying that he 
   still intends to come back. If, however, the pupil receives word 
   from his preceptor that the latter no longer intends to return, he 
   should immediately look for a teacher to take dependence under.
     
     -- The preceptor leaves, and the only other senior bhikkhu in the 
   monastery is one whom the pupil does not know well. In this case, 
   the pupil is allowed four or five days to observe the senior 
   bhikkhu's behavior (as mentioned above) before requesting dependence 
   from him. If, though, the pupil already knows the senior bhikkhu 
   well enough to feel confident in his conduct, he should take 
   dependence with him on the day of his preceptor's departure.
     
     If the pupil is staying in dependence on a teacher, the dependence 
   can lapse for any of six reasons. The first five are identical with 
   those above, although even the Commentary states that "he leaves," 
   the first reason, applies not only to cases where the teacher leaves 
   but also to cases where the pupil leaves. The sixth reason is:
     
     6. The pupil rejoins his preceptor. The Commentary explains this 
   by saying that, in effect, the pupil's original dependence on his 
   preceptor always overrides his dependence on a teacher. If the pupil 
   happens to see his preceptor and recognize him, or to hear and 
   recognize his voice -- even if they just happen to pass on the 
   street -- his dependence on his teacher automatically lapses, and 
   his dependence on his preceptor is reinstated. If he then returns to 
   live with his teacher, he must ask for dependence from the teacher 
   all over again.
     
     The Vinaya Mukha objects to his judgment, saying that "rejoins the 
   preceptor" should refer to the pupil's actually living with the 
   preceptor, either in another monastery or in the same monastery 
   where the teacher lives. This, however, is an area where different 
   Communities differ in their interpretation, and the wise policy is 
   to follow the interpretation of the Community in which one lives.
     
     //Temporary exemption from dependence//. Normally a junior bhikkhu 
   is required to live in dependence under a mentor at all times. 
   However, Mv.I.73 allows him not to take dependence when living in 
   the following situations if no qualified bhikkhu is available as a 
   mentor:
     
     1) He is on a journey.
     
     2) He is ill.
     
     3) He is caring for an ill person who has requested his help (%).
     
     4) He is living alone in the forest, meditating comfortably, 
   intending to take dependence if a qualified mentor comes along.
     
     
     The Commentary, in discussing these allowances, makes the 
   following points:
     
     A bhikkhu on a journey is said to have no mentor available if no 
   qualified senior bhikkhu is traveling with him. In other words, the 
   fact that he happens to pass by a monastery with a qualified mentor 
   does not mean that a mentor is available, and he is allowed to 
   continue traveling without taking dependence. If, however, he spends 
   the night in a place where he has taken dependence before, he should 
   take dependence on the day of his arrival. If he reaches a place 
   where he has never been before and plans to spend only two or three 
   days, he need not take dependence; but if he plans to spend a week, 
   he must. If the senior bhikkhu he requests dependence from says, 
   "What's the use of taking dependence for only a week?" that exempts 
   him from this requirement.
     
     As for the bhikkhu living alone in the forest, the Commentary says 
   that "meditating comfortably" means that his tranquility and insight 
   meditation are going smoothly. For some reason, though, it says that 
   this allowance applies only to bhikkhus whose meditation is at a 
   tender stage and might deteriorate if they were to leave the forest; 
   if a bhikkhu has attained any of the Noble Attainments -- beginning 
   with Stream-entry -- he may not make use of this allowance. Why the 
   Commentary limits the allowance in this way, it doesn't say.
     
     At any rate, once the month before the Rains Retreat arrives, and 
   no suitable mentor appears, the junior bhikkhu must leave his forest 
   abode and look for a place where he can take dependence for the 
   Rains.
     
     //Release from dependence//. According to Mv.I.53.4, a bhikkhu may 
   be released from dependence after he has been ordained for five 
   years, on the condition that he be experienced and competent. If he 
   is not yet experienced and competent, he must remain under 
   dependency until he is. If he never becomes experienced and 
   competent, he must remain in dependence for his entire life as a 
   bhikkhu. The Commentary adds that, in the last case, if he cannot 
   find a competent experienced bhikkhu who is senior to him, he must 
   take dependence with a competent, experienced bhikkhu who is his 
   junior.
     
     To be considered competent and experienced enough to deserve 
   release from dependence, a bhikkhu must meet many of the same 
   general qualifications as those for a mentor, except that he need 
   not possess the competence to look after a pupil, and the minimum 
   number of years he needs as a bhikkhu is five. None of the texts 
   divide the qualifications here into ideal and minimal 
   qualifications, as they do for the mentor, but it seems reasonable 
   that the same division would apply here as well. This would give us 
   the following list:
     
     //The ideal qualifications//: The bhikkhu should have an arahant's 
   virtue, concentration, discernment, release, and knowledge of 
   release. He should have faith, a sense of shame, fear of evil, 
   persistence in the practice, and quick mindfulness. He should be 
   free of heavy and light offenses and possess right view.
     
     //The minimal qualifications//: The bhikkhu must be learned and 
   intelligent, knowing both Patimokkhas in detail, understanding what 
   is and is not an offense, what is a light offense, what is a heavy 
   offense, and how an offense may be removed. And -- the most basic 
   requirement -- he must have been ordained as a bhikkhu for at least 
   five years (Mv.I.5-13).
     
     The Commentary expands on the term //learned// here, saying that 
   the bhikkhu must have memorized:
   
     1. Both Patimokkhas.
     
     2. The Four Bhanavaras -- a set of auspicious chants that are 
   still regularly memorized in Sri Lanka.
     
     3. A discourse that is helpful as a guide for sermon-giving. (The 
   Commentary lists as examples the Maha-Rahulovada Sutta [M. 62], the 
   Andhakavinda Sutta, and the Ambattha Sutta [D. 3].)
     
     4. Three kinds of //anumodana //(rejoicing in the merit of others) 
   chants: for meals; for auspicious merit-making ceremonies, such as 
   blessing a house; and for non-auspicious ceremonies, i.e., any 
   relating to a death.
     
     The Commentary adds that he must also know the rules for such 
   official acts of the Community as the Patimokkha recitation and the 
   Invitation Ceremony at the end of the Rains, and be acquainted with 
   themes for tranquility and insight meditation leading to 
   arahantship.
     
     This definition of //learned// is not universally accepted, and 
   some traditions have reworked it. As this is another area where 
   different Communities have different interpretations, the wise 
   policy is to adhere to the practice followed in one's Community, as 
   long as it follows the basic requirements in the Canon, mentioned 
   above.
     
     Once a pupil has been released from dependence, he need no longer 
   perform the duties mentioned in sections 4 and 5 under the pupil's 
   duties to his mentor.
     
     //Return to dependence//. The Cullavagga (I.9-12) states that a 
   bhikkhu released from dependence may be forced, by a formal act of 
   the Community, to return to dependence if his conduct is so bad as 
   to warrant it. The qualifying factors are:
     
     1. He is ignorant and inexperienced.
     
     2. He is full of offenses and has not made amends for them.
     
     3. He lives in unbecoming association with lay people.
     
     If these factors apply to a bhikkhu to the extent that the 
   Community is "fed up with granting him probation, sending him back 
   to the beginning, imposing penance, and rehabilitating him" -- these 
   terms refer to the procedures for dealing with a bhikkhu who has 
   committed repeated sanghadisesa offenses (see Chapter 5) -- then the 
   Community is justified in imposing a formal "act of dependence" on 
   him. This is identical with a formal "act for further misbehavior," 
   to be discussed in Chapter 11, and carries the same penalties, the 
   only difference being that the bhikkhu must live in dependence under 
   a mentor as long as the act of dependence is in effect. If he mends 
   his ways to the Community's satisfaction, they may rescind the act 
   and return his independence.
   
                                 * * *
   
   At any rate, as we mentioned above, regardless of whether a pupil is 
   under dependence or released from it, he is still expected to 
   observe certain duties to his preceptor -- and his preceptor, 
   certain duties to him -- as long as both are alive and ordained. 
   This is in line with the fact that they are always to regard each 
   other as father and son: The preceptor is to take a continuing 
   interest in his pupil's welfare, and the pupil is to show his 
   continuing gratitude for the initiation his preceptor has given him 
   into the bhikkhu's life.
   
   
                            * * * * * * * *
