Copyright: Copyright 1996 Wintertree Software Inc.


Comparative adjectives
Parts of speech: Adjectives

Comparative adjectives

The comparative forms of adjectives compare whatever is described with one other thing. Comparatives are formed by adding the suffix "er" or the words "more" or "less."

Use the suffix "er" when the adjective has one syllable:  "quicker," "darker," "louder."

Precede the adjective  by "more" or "less" when it has two or more syllables:  "more lucky," "more handsome," "less harmonious."

X	The new copier is more quicker than the old one.

OK	The new copier is quicker than the old one.

Mixing the two forms is redundant (and incorrect):

X	The new drapes make the room more brighter.

OK	The new drapes make the room brighter.

The adjectives "better" and "worse" don't use the "er" suffix:

X	His decision made the situation worser.

OK	His decision made the situation worse.

X	His decision made the situation betterer.

OK	His decision made the situation better.

See also:

Adjectives


Good vs. well
Parts of speech: Adjectives

Good vs. well

Many writers are unsure of the distinction between "good" and "well."

"Good" is an adjective,  so it normally modifies a noun.  "Well" is an adverb, so it normally modifies a verb  or an adjective.

X	My car is running good.

 ("Running" is a verb.)

OK	My car is running well.

X	The new product has sold good in the first quarter.

 ("Sold" is a verb.)

OK	The new product has sold well in the first quarter.

OK	The new product has had good sales in the first quarter.

 ("Sales" is a noun.)

These guidelines also apply to the adjective "bad" and the adverb  "badly."

X	We did bad in the product-evaluation tests.

 ("Did" is a verb.)

OK	We did badly in the product-evaluation tests.

See also:

Adjectives and Adverbs


Superlative adjectives
Parts of speech: Adjectives

Superlative adjectives

The superlative forms of adjectives  compare whatever is described with at least two other things. Superlative adjectives  state which thing in a collection of things possesses the least or most of some characteristic.

Form superlatives by adding the suffix "est" or the words "most" or "least."

Use the suffix "est" when the adjective has one syllable:  "quickest," "darkest," "loudest."

Precede the adjective  by "most" or "least" when it has two or more syllables:  "most lucky," "most handsome," "least harmonious."

X	The new copier is the most quick of the ones we tested.

OK	The new copier is the quickest of the ones we tested.

X	Her proposal was the economicalest one we received.

OK	Her proposal was the most economical one we received.

Mixing the two forms is redundant (and incorrect):

X	This is the most brightest room in the house.

OK	This is the brightest room in the house.

The adjectives "best" and "worst" don't use the "est" suffix:

X	Her resigning was the worstest thing that could happen now.

OK	Her resigning was the worst thing that could happen now.

X	This was the bestest exhibit I've seen in years.

OK	This was the best exhibit I've seen in years.

See also:

Adjectives


Comparative adverbs
Parts of speech: Adverbs

Comparative adverbs

Use "more" or "less" when the modifier is an adverb: "more quickly," "more darkly," "less loudly."

X	I got there quicklier than she did.

OK	I got there more quickly than she did.

X	Please practice your saxophone quietlier in the future.

OK	Please practice your saxophone more quietly in the future.

The adverb "early" is an exception. Use either "more early" or "earlier" when comparing:

OK	I'll try to leave more early next time.

OK	I'll try to leave earlier next time.

See also:

Adverbs


Superlative adverbs
Parts of speech: Adverbs

Superlative adverbs

Use "most" or "least" when the modifier is an adverb: "most quickly," "most darkly," "least loudly."

X	Of all the people in the choir, she sang softliest.

OK	Of all the people in the choir, she sang most softly.

See also:

Adverbs


Abbreviations

An abbreviation is a short form for one or more words. Examples:

Fri. (Friday)
Sept. (September)
St. (Street or Saint)


Acronyms

An acronym is a type of abbreviation formed from the first letters of a group of words. Acronyms are usually pronounced as complete words rather than individual letters. Examples:

DOS (Disk Operating System)
ASAP (As Soon As Possible)
GIF (Graphic Interchange Format)


Active verbs

An active verb is a word that expresses action, such as "run," "writing," and "flew."


Active voice

The active voice is a style of writing that uses explicit subjects and active verbs


Adjectives

An adjective is a word that describes a noun. Example adjectives include "red," "happy," and "broken."


Adverbs

An adverb is a word that describes a verb or an adjective. Example adverbs include "quickly," "dark," and "thoroughly."


Ambiguity

Ambiguity in writing is a statement that can be interpreted with more than one meaning. An example of an ambiguous sentence is:

Yesterday, she wrote to the person asking for help.

(Did she ask for help, or did she write to the person who asked for help?)


Apostrophes

The apostrophe (') is a kind of punctuation. The apostrophe is used to mark the place where letters were omitted in a contraction (e.g., "can't") and indicate possession (e.g., "Beth's").


Articles

An article is a kind of adjective that serves to identify which noun is being referred to. Common articles include "a," "an," and "the."


Capitals

A capital is a large (upper-case) alphabetic letter.


Clauses

A clause is a structural part of a sentence. A clause contains a subject and a predicate.


Collective subjects

A collective subject is a noun forming a group or collection. Example collective subjects include "crowd," "team," and "staff."


Colons

A colon (:) is a punctuating mark used to introduce lists and elaborations. It is also used to separate the parts of a time reference.


Commas

The comma (,) is a punctuating mark used for many purposes in English grammar. Its chief role is as a separator.


Comparisons

A comparison is statement showing the similarities and differences between two or more things.


Comparative modifiers

A comparative modifier is an adjective or adverb that describes by showing the relationship between two or more things. Example comparative modifiers include "most," "best," and "less."


Complimentary closings

The complimentary closing is the "Yours truly" part of a letter. It introduces your signature.


Compound adjectives

A compound adjective is two or more adjectives applied to one noun.


Compound nouns

Compound nouns are words formed from two or more nouns, such as "father-in-law" and "has-been."


Compound pronouns

A compound pronoun is a phrase that stands for more than one noun. A compound pronoun usually consists of two pronouns or a pronoun and a noun. Example compound pronouns include "she and I" and "Jim and me."


Compound subjects

Compound subjects have two or more parts joined by a conjunction (e.g., "x and y") or expressed in a list (e.g., "red, green, and blue").


Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that forms a relationship between two other ideas. Example conjunctions include "and," "or," and "but."


Conjunctive adverbs

A conjunctive adverb both forms a relation and qualifies two other ideas. Example conjunctive adverbs include "therefore," "however," and "moreover."


Consonants

A consonant is a letter which isn't a vowel. The following letters are consonants:

B, C, D, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, X, Y, Z


Contractions

A contraction is a kind of abbreviation formed by eliminating some of the letters in a word. The omitted letters are denoted using an apostrophe. Example contractions include "it's," "wasn't," and "she'd."


Dashes

A dash (--) is a kind of punctuation used to both separate and emphasize the separated material.


Defining clauses

A defining clause makes the noun to which it refers more specific.  A defining clause may also limit or alter the noun in some way:

She wore the dress that she wore last week.

("That she wore last week" is a defining clause which specifies which dress.)

All cars parked in the loading zone must be moved immediately.

("[That are] parked in the loading zone" is a defining clause that specifies which cars.)

Defining clauses can be introduced with either "that" or "which":

She wore the dress which she wore last week.

All cars that are parked in the loading zone must be moved immediately.


Dependent clauses

A dependent clause is an optional part of a sentence that supports the independent clause. The role of the dependent clause is to elaborate on the subject in the independent clause.


Descriptive clauses

A descriptive clause describes and provides information about the noun to which it refers. Descriptive clauses are isolated from the rest of the sentence with commas. Descriptive clauses are always introduced by "which":

Mega Blaster, which runs on both the Macintosh and Windows, helps busy homeowners manage their finances.

The reference section, which is located in an appendix, lists several books you may consult for further information.

The shipment, which arrived only yesterday, was incomplete.


Direct objects

The direct object is the thing directly acted on by the subject.


Ellipses

The ellipsis (...) is a kind of punctuation used to mark the omission of words or ideas.


Exclamation marks

The exclamation mark (!) is a kind of punctuation used to add emphasis to a sentence or part of a sentence.


Future tense

Future tense is a verb form that describes an action yet to take place -- i.e., an action that will take place in the future. Example future-tense verbs include "will run," "will be," and "will know."


Gender

Gender refers to the sex -- male or female -- of a person referred to in a sentence. Gender is especially important with pronouns, such as "his," "her," "he," and "she."


Hyphens

A hyphen (-) is a kind of punctuation used to separate words and parts of words. Examples of hyphenation include "semi-professional," "bright-red," and "brother-in-law."


Indefinite pronouns

Indefinite pronouns stand for nonspecific nouns. Examples:

everybody
anyone
none


Indefinite subjects

An indefinite subject is a subject formed from a nonspecific pronoun, such as "everybody" and "anyone."


Infinitive verb
Infinitive verbs

An infinitive verb is a phrase formed from the preposition "to" and a verb. Example infinitive verbs include "to walk," "to be," and "to have."


Independent clauses

An independent clause is a clause that can stand on its own as a complete sentence. In the following sentence,

Everyone wanted to leave, but I didn't.

("Everyone wanted to leave" is the independent clause.)


Indirect objects

The indirect object is referred to by the subject but not directly acted on by the subject. In the following sentence:

I told you I wanted a strawberry milkshake.

("You" is the indirect object.)


Initialisms

An initialism is a kind of abbreviation formed from the first letter of a group of words. Example initialisms include "RCMP," "USA," and "CIA." Each letter in an initialism is usually pronounced separately.


Interdependent clauses

Interdependent clauses are two or more dependent clauses that rely on each other to form a complete thought.


Introductory phrases

An introductory phrase introduces the main part of a sentence.

In spite of this, he amassed a considerable fortune.

("In spite of this" is the introductory phrase)


Italics

Italics are a typographical mark used to emphasize or set off words. The are also used to denote titles of major works. Example:

We must increase revenues this quarter.


Letter salutations

The salutation is the "Dear ..." part of a letter.


Lists

A list is an enumeration of a set of things. Example:

Three people attended: Mary, John, and Leslie.


Modifiers

A modifier is a word that changes or qualifies another word. Adjectives and adverbs are modifiers.


Nominative case

The nominative case is a form of pronoun used to refer to the person speaking.

I wanted to see you.

("I" is the nominative-case pronoun.)


Nouns

A noun is a word for a person, place, or thing. Example nouns include "car," "Sam," and "neighborhood."


Objects

The object is the thing acted on by the subject:

Jill sent me the report.

("Me" is the object.)


Organized writing

Organized writing is the method of presenting ideas to the reader in a logical, consistent, and expected way. Text written this way is well suited for explaining ideas to the reader.


Paragraphs

A paragraph is a collection of one or more sentences all devoted to the presentation of a single idea.


Parentheses

Parentheses -- ( ) -- are a form of punctuation used to isolate some words from the surrounding words and make them less important. Example:

The letter (which I received only yesterday) contained her resignation.


Passive verbs

A passive verb is a word that describes a condition or state of being. Example passive verbs include "is," "are," and "be."


Passive voice

The passive voice is a style of writing that uses indirect subjects and passive verbs. The passive voice is usually associated with flat, dull writing.


Past tense

The past tense is a form of verb that describes action occurring in a previous time. Example past-tense verbs include "ran," "had," and "did."


Periods

The period (.) is a kind of punctuation used to end sentences and mark some kinds of abbreviation.


Phrases

A phrase is a collection of words that modifies or connects. A phrase contains neither a subject nor a verb.


Plurals

Plural: more than one.


Plural Nouns

A plural noun represents two or more things:

cars
people
feet


Plural pronouns

A plural pronoun stands for a plural noun:

they
them
us


Possessives

A possessive is word describing possession or ownership:

it's
Elizabeth's
our


Possessive nouns

A possessive noun is a word that refers to a thing that possesses or owns something. Example possessive nouns include "Vicki's," "dog's," and "Canada's."


Possessive pronouns

A possessive pronoun is a word that stands for a noun which owns or possesses. Example possessive pronouns include "my," "hers," and "its."


Predicates

A predicate expresses action about or the condition of the subject of a sentence or clause. The predicate is the verb or verb phrase which connects the subject to the object.


Prefixes

A prefix is a small set of letters joined to the front of a word. Example prefixes include "pre" ("previous"), "semi" ("semicolon"), and "un" ("unusual").


Prepositions

Prepositions link the object of a sentence or clause to the noun or verb named before it. The preposition defines the relationship between a noun or verb and an object.

Common prepositions include "to," "for," and "on."


Present tense

The present tense is a form of verb that describes an action occurring now. Example present-tense verbs include "run," "is," and "have."


Pronouns

A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. Example pronouns include "I," "her," and "it."


Pronoun case

Pronoun case refers to the different forms a pronoun can take based on its role. There are three pronoun cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. The nominative case is used for the person speaking. The objective case is used for the person spoken about. The possessive case is used for the person spoken to.


Proper nouns

A proper noun is the name of a person, place, or thing. Example proper nouns include "Sally," "Vancouver," and "Ford Fairlane."


Punctuation

Punctuation is the set of marks, such as commas, periods, and apostrophes, used to both separate and join the structural parts of a sentence.


Question marks

The question mark (?) is a kind of punctuation used to denote a sentence as a question.


Quotation Marks

The quotation mark (") is a kind of punctuation used to indicate words that were written or spoken by someone.


Quotes

A quote or quotation is a collection of words written or spoken by someone. Quotes are surrounded by quotation marks.


Semicolons

The semicolon (;) is a kind of punctuation used to separate two independent clauses in a sentence. The semicolon acts like a weak period.


Sentences

A sentence is a collection of words containing a subject, predicate, and object. A sentence expresses a single idea.


Singular

Singular: one, single.


Slashes

A slash (/) is a kind of punctuation used to indicate alternatives, as in "and/or."


Subjects

The subject is the thing about which a sentence or clause is written.


Suffix
Suffixes

A suffix is a collection of characters joined to the end of a word. Example suffixes include "ment" ("commencement") "ing" ("beginning") and "ful" ("purposeful")


Superlative modifiers

A superlative modifier indicates which of several things exhibits the greatest degree of some characteristic. Example superlative modifiers include "most," "least," and "best."


Syllables

A syllable is a part of a word. A syllable forms one step in the rhythm of pronunciation. Example: "unusual" consists of the following syllables: un-u-su-al.


Titles

A title is the name given to a person (e.g., Dr. Smith) or a work (e.g., The Grapes of Wrath.


Verbs

A verb is a word that describes an action or a condition. Example verbs include "run," "is," and "saw."


Verb tense

Verb tense describes the changes made to a verb to indicate an action occurring over time. There are three basic tenses in English:

Past tense (e.g., ran, was, had)

Present tense (e.g., run, am, have)

Future tense (e.g., will run, will be, will have)


Verb "to be"

The verb "to be" assigns a condition to the subject. Forms of the verb "to be" are: "is,"  "are,"  "was,"  "were,"  "being," and "been."


Vowel

A vowel is a letter which isn't a consonant. The following letters are vowels:

A, E, I, O, U

'Y' is sometimes treated as a vowel in words like "quickly" and "rhythm."


Wordiness

Wordiness is the overuse of words -- using two words where one will do, for example.


Mechanics of writing

The "mechanics of writing" refers to the presentation of facts in writing. A related topic is writing style.

Capitalization:  The use of capital letters over small letters.  Correct usage is often confusing, particularly when capital letters are used within a sentence.

Abbreviations:  Shortened forms of words or word groups. Examples: "e.g.," "Mr.,", "FBI."

Dates and times: The correct ways to express dates and times.

Numbers:  Should you write "10" or "ten?"

Titles:  Names of works, such as books, articles, films, and songs.

Lists:  Expressing lists or series of items.

Hyphenation:  How to join words with hyphens,  and how to split a long word at the end of a line.


Abbreviations
Mechanics of writing

Abbreviations

Abbreviations are convenient shortcuts. Abbreviations are appropriate where conciseness is desirable, such as classified advertising, tables and charts, and informal letters. Use abbreviations sparingly, since they may obscure the meaning.

Abbreviations can be used for

Degrees and titles:  Mr., Dr.

Units of measure:  ft, C

Names of organizations:  NBC, ABL

Time and date references:  a.m., B.C.

Common Latin phrases:  vs., e.g.

Abbreviations can be plural  (Drs., ICBMs) and possessive  (FBI's, VP's).

Types of abbreviations include

Acronyms such as SALT and ASAP;

Contractions such as "can't" and "hadn't"; and

Initialisms such as FBI and USA.


Acronyms
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Acronyms

Acronyms are abbreviations  formed from the first letter (or few letters) of a collection of words. Unlike initialisms,  acronyms are pronounced as words:

SALT	Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty
MADD	Mothers Against Drunk Driving
DOS	Disk Operating System
GEM	Graphical Environment Manager
The letters in acronyms are not normally separated by periods.

In some cases, more than one letter may be extracted from a word to form an acronym. Some words may not be included in the acronym:

RADAR	RAdio Detection And Ranging
GREP	Globally search for Regular Expressions and Print
See also:

Abbreviations

Initialisms

Contractions


Contraction abbreviations
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Contractions

Contractions are a kind of abbreviation. Contractions are words shortened by omitting letters. An apostrophe  is used to show that some of the letters are omitted. Common contractions include:

cannot	can't
would not	wouldn't
will not	won't
of the clock	o'clock
let us	let's
I have	I've
she would	she'd
he will	he'll
she is	she's
it is	it's
Contractions are appropriate only in informal writing.

See also:

It's vs. its

Abbreviations

Acronyms

Initialisms


Abbreviating time and date references
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Abbreviating time and date references

The abbreviations for morning and afternoon can be written "A.M." and "P.M." or "a.m." and "p.m." Note the placement of periods:

9:45 A.M.

7:15 p.m.

three thirty P.M.

The abbreviation B.C. (Before Christ) always follows a year or century to which it refers:

400 B.C.

the fifth century B.C.

The abbreviation A.D. (Anno Domini, the year of our Lord) precedes specific years but follows centuries:

A.D. 1976

the 20th century A.D.

Some people prefer to use C.E. (Common Era) in place of A.D., and B.C.E. (Before Common Era) in place of B.C.

See also:

Abbreviations

Dates and times


Initialisms
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Initialisms

Initialisms are abbreviations formed from the first letters of a collection of words. Unlike acronyms, initialisms are pronounced by reciting each letter individually:

ICBM	Inter-Continental Ballistic Missile
RCMP	Royal Canadian Mounted Police
FCC	Federal Communications Commission
CPU	Central Processing Unit
The letters in commonly used initialisms are normally not separated by periods.  However, initialisms introduced in a written work usually are separated by periods:

They are under investigation by the FBI.

Last month, our cost to complete was fifty thousand dollars. This month, our C.T.C. is sixty thousand.

See also:

Abbreviations

Acronyms

Abbreviating organization names


Abbreviations of Latin phrases
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Abbreviations of Latin phrases

Several Latin words and phrases  are commonly abbreviated.  These are shown in the following chart. Note the placement of periods:

c.	about (in reference to dates)
ca.	about (in reference to dates)
cf.	compare, compare with
e.g.	for example
et al	and others (people)
etc.	and so on
ibid.	in the same place as the preceding reference
i.e.	that is, in other words
loc. cit.	in the place cited
N.B.	note well
op. cit.	in the work cited
q.v.	see also
viz.	that is
vs.	versus, opposed to, against, compared with
See also:

Abbreviations


Abbreviations for measures
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Abbreviations for measures

Abbreviations  for units of measure are written in small letters and are terminated with a period.

Abbreviations for measures are usually written the same way for singular  and plural  units. The abbreviation for "pound" is the only exception:

feet:	1 ft.	20 ft.
gallons:	1 gal.	20 gal.
hours:	1 hr.	20 hr.
inches:	1 in.	20 in.
kilometers:	1 km.	20 km.
liters:	1 l.	20 l.
miles:	1 mi.	20 mi.
minutes:	1 min.	20 min.
months:	1 mo.	20 mo.
pounds:	1 lb.	20 lbs.
seconds:	1 sec.	20 sec.
years:	1 yr.	20 yr.
A shorthand notation exists for inches and feet:

inches:	1"	20"
feet:	1'	20'
A similar notation is sometimes used for minutes and seconds:

minutes:	1'	20'
seconds:	1"	20"
See also:

Abbreviations


Abbreviating organization names
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Abbreviating organization names

Abbreviations  for organizations, companies, and institutions are usually initialisms. They are normally written without periods:

NBC

NFL

RCMP

UN

UNESCO

See also:

Abbreviations

Initialisms

Acronyms


Plural abbreviations
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Plural abbreviations

The plural  forms of abbreviations can be written in two ways: followed by s or followed by 's. Using the s form may avoid confusion, since the 's form is also used for possessive abbreviations:

ICBMs	or	ICBM's
IOUs	or	IOU's
CPUs	or	CPU's
D.A.s	or	D.A.'s
Personal titles have special plural abbreviations:

Dr.	Drs.
Mr.	Messrs.
Mrs.	Mmes.
Ms.	Ms.
Rev.	Revs.
See also:

Abbreviations

Possessive abbreviations

Abbreviating degrees and titles


Possessive abbreviations
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Possessive abbreviations

The possessive  forms of abbreviations are normally written like other possessive nouns:  they are followed by 's:

NFL's rules

NATO's policies

FBI's most-wanted list

See also:

Abbreviations

Plural abbreviations

Initialisms

Acronyms

Possessive nouns


Abbreviating degrees and titles
Mechanics of writing: Abbreviations

Abbreviating degrees and titles

Titles are always abbreviated  when they precede a person's name:

OK	Mr. Jones

X	Mister Jones

OK	Mrs. Jones

OK	Ms. Jones

OK	Dr. Jones

X	Doctor Jones

OK	Rev. Jones

Degrees are always abbreviated when they follow a person's name. The degree is separated from the name by a comma.  Other titles, such as "Mr." and "Mrs.," are omitted when a degree is written:

OK	Fred Jones, Ph.D.

X	Mr. Fred Jones, Ph.D.

OK	Katherine Jones, M.D.

X	Dr. Katherine Jones, M.D.

OK	Jasper Jones, B.A.

Degrees and titles not associated with a named person are spelled out:

OK	I called the doctor, but she was out.

X	I called the Dr., but she was out.

OK	He asked me to refer to him as "mister."

OK	I received my Doctor of Philosophy degree in 1967.

See also:

Abbreviations

Plural abbreviations


Capitalization
Mechanics of writing

Capitalization

Capitalization refers to how you use upper-case capital letters. The following rules apply.

Always capitalize the first word of a sentence.

We left at noon.

Always capitalize the first word of a quoted sentence,  but only if the sentence  is quoted  in its entirety:

OK	The announcement proclaimed, "We have revolutionized photography."

X	The announcement proclaimed, "we have revolutionized photography."

OK	The company announced they had "revolutionized" photography.

X	The company announced they had "Revolutionized" photography.

OK	She said, "If John doesn't go, I won't go."

X	She said, "if John doesn't go, I won't go."

OK	She said she wouldn't go if John doesn't go.

The word following a colon is normally not capitalized. It is capitalized, however, if it begins a complete sentence:

His meal was simple: rice, bread, and water.

Three people are coming: Norm, Beth, and Harold.

(Capitalized only because the word following the colon  is a proper noun.)

Restoring files: Enter the "restore" command to retrieve saved files.

Restoring files: "restore" command.

Capitalize the first letter of each item in an enumerated list:

To recover from serious errors
1. Insert the backup disk in drive A:
2. Reboot

Capitalize the first letter of proper nouns:

John Smith	Tuesday	General Motors
California	North Pole	Honda Accord
Republican Party	Geiger counter	Microsoft
Capitalize the first letter of an adjective formed from a proper noun:

American

Napoleonic

English

Capitalize letters used as words:

C-sharp	U-bolt	T-bar
X-ray	G-string	A-bomb
Capitalize titles of works:

Poltergeist

A Trip to the Fair

For Whom the Bell Tolls

Capitalize words that are substitutes for the names of specific individuals. Don't capitalize words that are terms for relationships:

OK	This is the spot where Father and I went fishing.

X	This is the spot where father and I went fishing.

OK	This is the spot where my father and I went fishing.

X	This is the spot where my Father and I went fishing.

OK	I'll have to check with Skipper first.

OK	I was given the shirt by Aunt Karen.

X	I was given the shirt by aunt Karen.

OK	My aunt gave me the shirt.

X	My Aunt gave me the shirt.

See also:

Lists

Titles of works


Dates and times
Mechanics of writing

Dates and times

The preferred way to write a date is "25 July 1991." The month separates the two sets of numbers, making commas  unnecessary.

The year may be omitted when it is obvious from the context or is the current year: 25 July.

Alternatively, dates may be written "July 25, 1991."

Times are usually written with the "hour:minute" notation, as in "10:30." The time can be followed by the abbreviation "A.M." or "P.M." (or "a.m." or "p.m.") to remove ambiguity where necessary:

 The call was placed at 10:30 p.m.

Our next meeting will be held on 10 September 1991 at 2:30.

("P.M." is implied by the context.)

Times on the hour or half-hour can be spelled out. In this case, don't use A.M. or P.M. -- indicate morning or evening explicitly:

OK	ten thirty in the evening

X	ten thirty P.M.

OK	nine o'clock in the morning

X	nine o'clock a.m.

OK	4:57 p.m.

Don't use A.M. or P.M. when morning or evening is obvious from the context, and don't specify morning or evening redundantly:

OK	8:00 p.m.

X	8:00 p.m. in the evening

OK	Tuesday morning at 10:30

X	Tuesday morning at 10:30 a.m.

Decades can be written as figures or spelled out, optionally with an apostrophe  to show the omission of the century:

the 60s

the sixties

the 1960s

the 60's

the '60s

the 1960's

Centuries can also be written as figures or spelled out:

the early 1900s

the late 20th century

the late twentieth century

Don't precede month names with "the month of," unless there is ambiguity between a month name and another word in the sentence:

Wanda's birthday is in April.

April's birthday is in the month of April.

See also:

Abbreviating dates and times


Hyphenating words
Mechanics of writing

Hyphenating words

A hyphen  is used to separate words and parts of words.  Related topics:

Hyphenating compound adjectives: How to tell whether to write "the bright red firetruck" or "the bright-red firetruck."

Hyphenating adverbs and adjectives: How to tell whether to write "a brightly colored dress" or "a brightly-colored dress."

Hyphenating compound nouns: How to tell whether to write "brother in law" or "brother-in-law."

Hyphenating numbers: How to tell whether to write "twenty two" or "twenty-two."

Hyphenating prefixes: How to tell whether to write "self indulgent" or "self-indulgent."

Breaking long words at the end of a line: How to tell whether to write "mec-hanics" or "mech-anics."


Hyphenating adverbs and adjectives
Mechanics of writing: Hyphenating words

Hyphenating adverbs and adjectives

Don't hyphenate adverbs that modify adjectives.

X	a fast-moving train

OK	a fast moving train

X	a brightly-colored dress

OK	a brightly colored dress

X	a hastily-prepared memo

OK	a hastily prepared memo

See also:

Hyphenation

Hyphenating compound adjectives

Adverbs

Adjectives


Hyphenating compound adjectives
Mechanics of writing: Hyphenating words

Hyphenating compound adjectives

The first adjective  in a compound adjective  modifies the second.

Hyphenate  two or more adjectives  that precede a noun.  Don't hyphenate adjectives  that follow a noun:

OK	the bright-red firetruck

OK	the firetruck that is bright red

X	the firetruck that is bright-red

OK	a forward-looking study

OK	a study that is forward looking

X	a study that is forward-looking

OK	a two-month-old baby

OK	a baby that is two months old

X	a baby that is two-months-old

OK	a forty-hour week

OK	a week forty hours long

X	a week forty-hours-long

The last part of a compound adjective common to two or more compound adjectives  that modify the same noun  can be suspended with a hyphen:

the late- to middle-Renaissance period

middle- and senior-level management

red- and green-colored paper

See also:

Hyphenation

Hyphenating adverbs and adjectives


Hyphenating compound nouns
Mechanics of writing: Hyphenating words

Hyphenating compound nouns

Hyphens  are used to separate compound nouns.

father-in-law

has-been

quasi-particle

Because the English language is evolving, new compounds are being formed constantly. Consult a dictionary to determine the correct form.

See also:

Hyphenation


Hyphenation: Breaking long words
Mechanics of writing: Hyphenating words

Breaking long words

When a word must be broken at the end of a line, use a hyphen  to show the word is continued. Words are always broken at syllable boundaries according to the following rules:

Don't break up words of five or fewer characters:

X	ru-by

OK	ruby

Don't leave a single-letter syllable by itself:

X	e-motion

OK	emo-tion

X	eas-y

OK	easy

If the consonant appearing before the suffix is doubled, and the doubled consonant is part of the root word, break the word after the doubled consonant:

X	poses-sing

OK	posess-ing

If the consonant appearing before the suffix is doubled, and the doubled consonant is not part of the root word, break the word between the doubled letters:

X	beginn-ing

OK	begin-ning

See also:

Hyphenation


Hyphenating numbers
Mechanics of writing: Hyphenating words

Hyphenating numbers

Use a hyphen  to separate fractions and two-word spelled-out numbers under one hundred:

five hundred forty-seven

one-half

twenty-two

one and three-fifths

See also:

Numbers


Hyphenating prefixes
Mechanics of writing: Hyphenating words

Hyphenating prefixes

The prefixes "self," "quasi," and "ex" are usually separated from the stem word with hyphens:

self-indulgent

quasi-intelligent

ex-wife

Use a hyphen  when a prefix precedes a capitalized  word:

pro-Communist

anti-Leftist

trans-Atlantic

Use a hyphen  when a prefix precedes a number:

pre-1970s

post-60s

Use a hyphen  when a prefix results in a doubled vowel:

co-operate	cohabitate
pre-empt	precooked
anti-inflationary	antidepressant
See also:

Capitalization

Numbers


Lists
Mechanics of Writing

Lists

Lists  can take several forms. The simplest list  is a series of items, separated by commas:

We have three animals in our little "zoo": a dog, a cat, and a mouse.

This type of list  is usually introduced by a colon  or dash.

Vertical lists  indicate each item with a number or mark:

We have three animals in our little "zoo":
1. a dog;
2. a cat;
3. a mouse.

We have three animals in our little "zoo" --
- a dog;
- a cat;
- a mouse.

If the list  items are complete sentences, punctuate  the introduction as a sentence  as well:

We have three animals in our little "zoo."
1. Rover, the dog, loves to play catch outside.
2. Fluffy, the cat, sleeps most of the time.
3. Squeaky, the mouse, enjoys eating cheese.

For lists  of people including a pronoun,  place the pronoun  at the end of the list:

OK	Frank, Linda, and I went to school together.

X	I, Frank, and Linda went to school together.

OK	Joanne, Beth, and she were never close.

X	She, Joanne, and Beth were never close.

OK	Bob, Pete, and the others stayed behind.


Numbers
Mechanics of Writing

Numbers

In general writing, spell out numbers with fewer than two words. Write other numbers as figures:

five

nineteen

123

twenty-six

three million

Numbers expressed as figures should not start a sentence. Rewrite the sentence  or spell the number out.

X	1,200 pencil sharpeners have been sold in the past two days.

OK	In the past two days, 1,200 pencil sharpeners have been sold.

OK	Twelve hundred pencil sharpeners have been sold in the past two days.

Use a hyphen  to separate spelled-out two-word numbers under 100, even when they are part of a larger number:

twenty-eight

thirty-four thousand

four thousand ninety-two

Don't use "and" in spelled-out numbers unless the smallest part of the number is less than ten:

one hundred twenty-five

one hundred and six

four thousand three hundred thirty one

four thousand three hundred and five

Use "one" instead of "a" in spelled-out numbers:

OK	one hundred boats

X	a hundred boats

OK	one million hamburgers

X	a million hamburgers

See also:

Hyphenating numbers


Titles
Mechanics of writing

Titles

Capitalize  the titles of works using the following rules:

1. Capitalize  the first letter of the first word.

2. Capitalize  all other words in the title except articles , conjunctions, and prepositions.

Examples:

A Boy and a Dream

The Tale of the Lonesome Moose

Platinum and other Precious Metals

Italicize  or underline the names of books (but not chapters), magazines (but not magazine articles), newspapers, comic strips, films, plays, paintings, statues, record albums (but not songs), large musical works such as operas and symphonies, television shows, and names of ships and other craft.

Place in quotation marks  the names of book chapters, magazine articles, poems, essays, unpublished manuscripts, songs, and episodes of television shows.

Examples:

For more information, see the "Incorporating your Business" chapter in Successful Strategies.

I saw the plans in "How to build your own radio" in Popular Electronics.

He completes the New York Times crossword puzzle every day.

They played "Back in the U.S.S.R." from the White album twice yesterday.

Her last performance was in Madame Butterfly.

I never miss watching Jeopardy.

Treat the names of man-made objects such as buildings and parks as proper nouns.

See also:

Capitalization


Plurals
Parts of speech: Nouns

Plurals

Plural nouns  refer to more than one thing.

A noun  is plural  even if it is only fractionally greater than one:

OK	one-and-a-half pies

X	one-and-a-half pie

The plural  of most nouns is formed by adding the suffix  "s." Nouns ending in "s," "z," "x," "ch," or "sh" are made plural  by adding the suffix  "es":

dog	dogs
horse	horses
thought	thoughts
pickle	pickles
waltz	waltzes
match	matches
Make nouns  ending in "y" plural  by changing the "y" to "ies," unless the "y" was preceded by a vowel,  in which case use just the suffix  "s":

duty	duties
frailty	frailties
key	keys
quality	qualities
play	plays
Nouns  ending in "o" are often made plural  by adding the suffix  "es" (there are exceptions, though -- check the dictionary to be sure):

echo	echoes
tomato	tomatoes
potato	potatoes
zero	zeroes or zeros
radio	radios
Certain nouns  are made plural  by adding the suffix  "en":

ox	oxen
brother	bretheren
child	children
Some nouns  are made plural by changing their vowels:

foot	feet
goose	geese
louse	lice
man	men
tooth	teeth
woman	women
The names of hunted animals have the same forms in the singular  and plural:

OK	quail

X	quails

OK	deer

X	deers

OK	moose

X	mooses

OK	fish

X	fishes

OK	trout

X	trouts

OK	salmon

X	salmons

Nouns  of foreign origin have various exceptional plural  forms:

antenna	antennae
bacterium	bacteria
cactus	cacti
cello	celli
concerto	concerti
criterion	criteria
curriculum	curricula
datum	data
focus	foci
formula	formulae
larva	larvae
medium	media
memorandum	memoranda
phenomenon	phenomena
referendum	referenda
syllabus	syllabi
vertebra	vertebrae
virtuoso	virtuosi
To make compound nouns plural,  make the most significant part plural  using the rules listed above (the most significant part is the part described by the rest of the compound):

OK	arm-chairs

OK	foot-stools

OK	attorneys-general

X	attorney-generals

OK	major-generals

OK	brothers-in-law

X	brother-in-laws

OK	hangers-on

X	hanger-ons

OK	maids-of-honor

X	maid-of-honors

See also:

Nouns

Hyphenating compound nouns


Possessives
Parts of speech: Nouns

Possessives

Possessive nouns  own or possess. What they possess can be other nouns  ("the car's windshield") or qualities ("the mind's eye," "a moment's notice").

The quality of possession is usually assigned to a noun  using the apostrophe.

For singular nouns, form the possessive  by adding the suffix  's. This applies whether the singular noun  ends in s or not:

OK	Jerry's truck

OK	at year's end

OK	Gus's clothing

X	Gus' clothing

OK	the business's concerns

X	the business' concerns

OK	the cat's pajamas

There are some traditional exceptions to this rule:

Achilles' heel

Jesus' word

goodness' sake

The suffix  's can be used even if the noun  is an inanimate object.

the car's radiator

the house's roof

my computer's keyboard

Some people prefer to denote possession of inanimate objects using "of":

the radiator of the car

the roof of the house

the keyboard of my computer

For plural nouns ending in s, form the possessive  by adding a single apostrophe  as a suffix: . Use the suffix 's for plural nouns that do not end in s:

OK	the girls' picnic

X	the girls's picnic

OK	secretaries' day

X	secretaries's day

OK	the boys' coats

X	the boys's coats

OK	the people's choice

OK	the men's room

When two or more nouns  jointly possess something, apply the possessive  form to the last noun  only:

John and Mary's house

Barnes and Noble's products

Thomas and Son's Hardware

When two or more nouns individually possess something similar, apply the possessive  form to all nouns:

John's and Mary's birth certificates

When a compound noun  possesses, place the 's at the end:

my mother-in-law's house

the attorney-general's office

my brothers-in-law's parents

Use "of" to denote possession when the name of the possessor is long or awkward.

Awkward: the First National Bank of New York's assets

Better: the assets of the First National Bank of New York

Awkward: Joe's brother's doctor's cousin

Better: the cousin of the doctor of Joe's brother

Awkward: the maids-of-honor's dresses

Better: the dresses of the maids-of-honor

Awkward: my brothers-in-law's houses

Better: the houses of my brothers-in-law

See also:

Nouns

Possessive pronouns


Proper nouns
Parts of speech: Nouns

Proper nouns

Proper nouns are the names of specific people, places, and things. Proper nouns  are normally capitalized:

John Smith

The United States of America

the Empire State Building

Florida

SupraModem 2400

See also:

Nouns

Capitalization


Parts of speech

Each word in a sentence plays a role. "Parts of speech" is the term used to describe the types of roles played by words.

Adjectives  -- descriptive words that enhance the meanings of nouns:  quick, tall, red, happy.

Adverbs  -- descriptive words that enhance the meanings of verbs  and adjectives:  happily, quickly, brightly, fast.

Articles  -- Simple adjectives  that describe "which one": the, a, an.

Conjunctions  -- words that join one part of a sentence  to another: and, but.

Interjections  -- words that express emotions: ouch, damn, oh.

Nouns  -- words for people, places, and things: tree, Denver, idea, John.

Prepositions  -- words that form relationships between other words and the rest of a sentence: to, for, with, in.

Pronouns  -- words that stand for nouns:  she, it, his, I.

Verbs  -- words that describe actions or conditions: run, build, sleep, is.


Adjectives
Parts of speech

Adjectives

Adjectives are descriptive words. They can make sentences more interesting by adding color and detail. Examples:

The man shuffled across the linoleum.

The weary, gray old man shuffled across the dingy linoleum.

They can make sentences  more exact by qualifying things. Examples:

Sarah told the boy she'd never seen such a performance.

Sarah told the oldest boy she'd never seen such a shameful performance.

Connect the wire to the terminal.

Connect the blue wire to the left terminal.

Adjectives always modify nouns.

Related topics:

Comparative adjectives  describe by comparing with something else:

warmer

better

less difficult

Superlative adjectives  describe by comparing with two or more other things. Superlative adjectives state which thing possesses the most or least of some characteristic:

warmest

best

least difficult


Adverbs
Parts of speech

Adverbs

Adverbs are descriptive words. They make sentences more interesting by adding color and detail. Examples:

The boy ran toward us.

The boy ran breathlessly toward us.

Adverbs can also make sentences more exact by qualifying actions:

Add warm water to the bowl.

Slowly add warm water to the bowl.

Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives,  or other adverbs.

Related topics:

Comparative adverbs  form part of a comparison with one other thing:

more quickly

less loudly

Superlative adverbs  form part of a comparison with two or more other things:

most quickly

least loudly

Split infinitives:  Adverbs inserted between "to" and an infinitive verb .


Articles
Parts of speech

Articles

Articles are simple adjectives .

Articles always precede nouns,  and identify which noun  is referred to.

"A" or "an" are indefinite articles. They refer to any noun :

a house

an apple

a possibility

"The" is a definite article. It refers to one specific noun :

the house

the apple

the possibility

"A" precedes nouns  that begin with a consonant  sound. "An" precedes nouns  that begin with a vowel sound. Note that the first letter of a noun  need not be a vowel  or consonant for these rules to apply:

a box	an item
a unit	an hour
a university	an heir
a union	an honor
See also:

Adjectives


Conjunctions
Parts of speech

Conjunctions

A conjunction is a joining word that links related words, phrases,  and clauses.

Common conjunctions:

and	after	although	as	because
before	but	how	if	nor
once	or	since	so	that
though	till	unless	until	what
when	where	whether	while	why
Do not use "and who," "and which," or "and that" in a sentence  unless there is a preceding "who," "which," or "that":

X	The man I met yesterday and who gave me his theater tickets called this morning.

OK	The man who I met yesterday and who gave me his theater tickets called this morning.

Do not follow "come," "go," or "try" with "and." Use the preposition  "to" instead:

X	I'll try and call you next week.

OK	I'll try to call you next week.

X	You can come and get your books after supper.

OK	You can come to get your books after supper.

X	You could go and pick him up yourself.

OK	You could go to pick him up yourself.

Always use "or" after "either":

OK	Either Elaine or Carol will meet you at the airport.

Always use "nor" after "neither":

OK	Neither Elaine nor Carol are ready, so I will pick you up at the airport.

X	Nether Elaine or Carol are ready, so I will pick you up at the airport.

Generally, use "or" after "not." If the items are closely related, substitute "nor" for "or":

OK	This weather is not fit for skating or swimming.

OK	This weather is not fit for man nor beast.

OK	The tornado had not damaged the house or the car.

OK	He could not rely on friend nor relative.


Interjections
Parts of speech

Interjections

Interjections express strong emotions or exclamations:

oh

whew

damn


Nouns
Parts of speech

Nouns

Nouns represent objects, such as people, places, and things. Nouns can also represent ideas, such as hunger, emotions, or laws. Nouns for classes of people, places and things are called common nouns. Nouns that are the specific names of people, places, and things are proper nouns.

Nouns have the quality of number. A noun representing one object (or less than one, in the case of a part) is singular,  while a noun representing more than one is plural.

For example, "the tree" refers to a single tree, so "tree" is singular. "The top of the tree" refers to part of a single tree, so "top of the tree" is singular.   "The trees" refers to two or more trees, so "trees" is plural.

Nouns also have the quality of ownership. Nouns having this quality are called possessives.  For example, the noun "John" is possessive  in the sentence,  "We wrapped John's shirt."

See also:

Proper nouns

Plural nouns

Possessive nouns


Prepositions
Parts of speech

Prepositions

Prepositions link the object  of a sentence  or clause  to the noun  or verb  named before it.

A preposition defines the relationship between a noun  or verb  and an object. Prepositions normally appear before the object :

I gave the book to Joan.

(Preposition "to" links object  "Joan" to noun  "book")

We were surprised by the storm.

(Preposition "by" links object  "storm" to verb  "surprised")

Common prepositions include

above	about	across	after
against	along	among	around
at	before	behind	below
beneath	beside	between	beyond
by	down	during	except
for	from	in	inside
into	like	near	of
off	on	since	to
toward	through	under	until
up	upon	with	within
Usually, the object  follows the preposition. A preposition appearing at the end of a sentence sometimes sounds awkward because we expect to find an object:

Awkward: This is the present we bought the wrapping paper for.

Better: We bought the wrapping paper for this present.

Another danger in placing the preposition at the end of a sentence  lies in separating the preposition from the object  with too many words:

Awkward: She gave me the newspaper she had walked over two miles to the store for.

Better: She gave me the newspaper for which she had walked over two miles to the store.

Choose the preposition appropriate for the verb and object:

accompanied by a person

accompanied with a thing

accused of a wrong

accused by a person

in accordance to a rule

in accordance with a person

agree to (or about an idea)

agree with a person

correspond to an object

correspond with a person

differ from a person or thing

differ with a person

part from a person

part with a thing

Be careful of suspended prepositions separated by conjunctions . The suspended preposition must be appropriate for each verb . In the following example, preposition "for" is incorrect with "proud."

X	I am proud and pleased for you.

OK	I am proud of and pleased for you.


Pronouns
Parts of speech

Pronouns

Pronouns are words that stand for and take the place of nouns.

Related topics:

Compound pronouns:  How to tell whether to write "he and I" or "he and me."

Who or whom:  How to tell whether to write "to who I was speaking" or "to whom I was speaking."

That or which:  How to tell whether to write "the sweater that I wore" or "the sweater which I wore."

Whose or of-which:  How to tell whether to write "the car whose tires are bald" or "the car of which the tires are bald."

It's or its:  How to tell whether to write "the cat ate its dinner" or "the cat ate it's dinner."

You or yourself:  How to tell whether to write "a person like you" or "a person like yourself."

Pronouns in comparisons:  How to tell whether to write "she likes him as much as I" or "she likes him as much as me."

Pronouns following 'to be':  How to tell whether to write "It was I who called" or "It was me who called."

Plural pronouns:  Pronouns that stand for multiple things.

Pronoun gender:  Pronouns that stand for male or female people.


Verbs
Parts of speech

Verbs

Verbs describe actions or states of being. Example verbs are "run," "be," and "look."

Topics related to verbs:

Verb tense: Time distinctions between verbs. Examples: "ran," "run," and "will run."

Subject and verb agreement:  Making verbs like "is" and "are" match the subjects they refer to.

Active and passive verbs: The distinction between verbs that describe action and verbs that describe states of being.

Split infinitive:  An adverb  inserted between "to" and an infinitive verb  ("to boldly go...")

Participles:  The "ed" and "ing" verb forms: "walked," "walking," "looked," "looking," "heard," "hearing."


Pronoun case
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Pronoun case

Pronouns  have different forms based on their function within a sentence.  Pronoun case refers to the different forms a pronoun  can take.

There are three pronoun cases: nominative, objective, and possessive. The nominative case is used for the person speaking. The objective case is used for the person spoken about. The possessive case is used to express ownership of the person spoken about.

Nominative	Objective	Possessive
he	him	his
I	me	mine, my
it	it	its
she	her	hers
they	them	their, theirs
we	us	our, ours
who	whom	whose
whoever	whomever	whosever
you	you	your, yours
Use the nominative case when the pronoun  is the subject  of a sentence  or a clause:

I wrote the letter.

("I" is the subject pronoun.)

Use the possessive case to assign ownership to a preceding or following noun:

My car is in the shop.

("My" is the pronoun)

That car of mine is in the shop.

("Mine" is the pronoun)

Use the objective case when the pronoun  is a direct object, indirect object, or the object  of a preposition:

Yesterday she told me.

("Me" is the object.)

She told me about what happened.

("Me" is the object.)

It was told to me by her.

("Me" is the object  of the preposition  "to.")

See also:

Pronouns

Objects


Pronouns following comparisons
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Pronouns following comparisons

Sentences involving comparisons  often contain implied verbs.  The missing verbs sometimes make it difficult to tell which pronoun case is correct. For example, which of the following sentences  is correct?

He can't type as quickly as I.

He can't type as quickly as me.

To determine which is correct, fill in the implied verbs:

OK	He can't type as quickly as I can.

X	He can't type as quickly as me can.

The first sentence  is clearly correct. More examples follow.

X	She is taller than him.

OK	She is taller than he.

OK	She is taller than he is.

X	We have a smaller yard than them.

OK	We have a smaller yard than they.

OK	We have a smaller yard than they do.

X	I want a hat like him.

OK	I want a hat like his.

Sometimes leaving the verb  implied makes a sentence  ambiguous, as in the following example:

X	She likes him better than me.

This sentence  can be interpreted in two ways:

She likes him better than I do.

She likes him more than she likes me.

See also:

Pronouns

Pronoun case


Compound pronouns
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Compound pronouns

Compound pronouns involve a pronoun  and a noun  or another pronoun.

Unlike nouns,  the case of pronouns changes based on their function. This is especially confusing with compound pronouns. For example, in the following sentences,  the case of the pronoun  "I" changes to "me":

Jim and I sat with her.

Jim and me sat with her.

She sat with Jim and I.

She sat with Jim and me.

To determine which is correct, remove all parts of the compound except the pronoun  in question, then read back the sentence  to make sure it is still correct. Let's try this on the first pair of example sentences:

OK	I sat with her.

X	Me sat with her.

"Me sat with her" is clearly wrong, and "I sat with her" is correct. Now let's check the second pair of sentences:

X	She sat with I.

OK	She sat with me.

The correct case is "me," not "I."

See also:

Pronouns

Pronoun case


It's or its
Parts of speech: Pronouns

It's vs. its

One of the most confusing aspects of English for many people is the distinction between "its" and "it's."

"It's" (with the apostrophe ) is a contraction  for "it is":

OK	It's a beautiful day.

OK	It's hard to tell what you're thinking.

OK	I looked in the cupboard but it's not there.

"Its" (without the apostrophe ) is the possessive  form of the pronoun  "it":

OK	The dog had chewed through its leash.

OK	We admired both the finish of the piano and its rich tone.

OK	The award was presented to the club and its president.

One way to remember the distinction is to associate "its" with other possessive pronouns ending in "s": his, hers, and theirs.

See also:

Pronouns

Possessive pronouns

Contractions


Plural pronouns
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Plural pronouns

Pronouns,  like nouns, have singular  and plural  forms. Plural pronouns  take the place of plural nouns.  Singular pronouns  take the place of singular nouns.

X	The mob of customers shouted their objections.

(The plural pronoun "their" refers to the singular  collective noun  "mob.")

OK	The mob of customers shouted its objections.

OK	The customers shouted their objections.

Pronoun  agreement is especially confusing when indefinite pronouns such as "everyone," "everybody," "anyone," and "anybody" are used.

Treat "everyone" and "everybody" as plural pronouns:

OK	Does everyone have their tickets ready?

OK	I told everybody to stay in their seats.

Singular indefinite pronouns,  such as "anyone," "anybody," "a person," "someone," and "somebody" present problems because there are no singular  gender-indefinite personal pronouns in English. See pronoun gender for a more detailed discussion.


Possessive pronouns
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Possessive pronouns

Like possessive nouns,  a possessive pronoun owns or possesses.  The manner in which possession is indicated varies with the type of pronoun:  personal or indefinite.

Personal pronouns (e.g., I, he, and her) change case  to show possession:

I	my or mine
us	our or ours
you	your or yours
he	his
she	hers
it	its
them	their
The possessive form of the pronoun "it" (its) is often mistakenly written "it's." It's" is a contraction  for "it is."

Indefinite pronouns  are made possessive by adding "'s":

To everyone's surprise, he arrived on time.

Please let me know if anyone's schedule changes.

When an indefinite pronoun followed by "else" is made possessive, apply the "'s" to the "else":

He hasn't sold anyone else's products in his store for ten years.

Margaret's clothes are unpacked, but everyone else's are still in the suitcases.

See also:

Pronouns

It's or its


Pronouns: You or yourself
Parts of speech: Pronouns

You or yourself

Use pronouns  ending in "self" (myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, themselves, ourselves) when the pronoun  refers to the subject of the sentence:

OK	He brings shame on himself.

("He" is the subject;  "himself" refers to "he.")

X	He brings shame on him.

OK	His deeds bring shame on him.

"Deeds" is the subject.

X	His deeds bring shame on himself.

OK	His generosity speaks for itself.

("Generosity" is the subject; "itself" refers to "generosity.")

Don't use the "self" form of pronouns  after a comparison.

X	A good worker like yourself is an inspiration to all employees.

OK	A good worker like you is an inspiration to all employees.

See also:

Pronouns


That or which
Parts of speech: Pronouns

That or which

Use "which" with either the defining clause or the descriptive clause.

Use "that" only with a defining clause.

Examples:

The movie that I saw last night was enjoyable.

("That I saw last night" is a defining clause; "which I saw last night" could also be used here.)

The movie, which I saw last night, was enjoyable.

("Which I saw last night" is a descriptive clause.)

She ate the apple which was in the bowl.

("Which was in the bowl" is a defining clause; it defines which specific apple.)

She ate the apple, which was in the bowl.

("Which was in the bowl" is a descriptive clause; it describes the location of the apple but doesn't specify which apple. Note the use of the comma.)

See also:

Pronouns

Clauses


Pronouns following 'to be'
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Pronouns following "to be"

When a pronoun  follows a form of the verb "to be," ("is," "was," "am") use the nominative case ("I," "you," "she," "he," "it," "we," "they," and "who").

X	It was me who called yesterday.

OK	It was I who called yesterday.

X	This is her.

OK	This is she.

See also:

Pronouns

Active and passive verbs

Pronoun case


Whose or 'of which'
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Whose or "of which"

"Whose" can be used to avoid awkward "of which" references

Awkward: Our club, of which the membership is 350, is devoted to dog breeding.

Better: Our club, whose membership is 350, is devoted to dog breeding.

"Whose" can also be used in reference to inanimate objects:

The dandelion, whose cheerful yellow flower brightens many lawns in spring, is considered a weed.


Who or whom
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Who or whom

Use "who" when the pronoun is the subject of a verb:

OK	People who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.

("Who" is the subject  of the verb "live.")

X	People whom live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones.

OK	I didn't know who to call.

X	I didn't know whom to call

Use "whom" when the pronoun is the object of a verb  or the object  of a preposition: As a simple rule of thumb, use "whom" after a preposition such as "to," "for," "of," "with," "by," etc.

OK	She asked to whom I was referring.

("Whom" is the object  of the preposition  "to.")

X	She asked to who I was referring.

OK	To whom am I speaking?

X	To who am I speaking?

OK	Whom did you buy the gift for?

(Can be rephrased as "For whom did you buy the gift?")

X	Who did you buy the gift for?

See also:

Pronouns

Verbs

Objects


Pronoun gender
Parts of speech: Pronouns

Pronoun gender

Pronouns  in English are distinguished based on the gender  of the person to which the pronoun  refers:

Bill sprained his ankle.

("His" is the male pronoun)

Mary lost her book.

("Her" is the female pronoun)

English does not have a singular gender -independent personal pronoun. Traditionally, the singular pronoun "he" has been used to refer to both sexes, but this is now regarded as sexist:

X	Anyone who wants lunch must present his ticket at the counter.

This problem can be removed in two ways.

The first method is to use "he or she" or "he/she" in place of "he":

OK	Anyone who wants lunch must present his or her ticket at the counter.

The second method is to use a plural indefinite pronoun in place of the singular:

OK	All people who want lunch must present their tickets at the counter.

The third method is to rewrite the sentence to eliminate indefinite pronouns  entirely:

OK	If you want lunch, present your ticket at the counter.

Note that the following sentence is incorrect, because the plural pronoun  "their" is inconsistent with the singular indefinite pronoun "everyone":

X	Everyone who wants lunch must present their tickets at the counter.

When using pronouns  to stand for compound subjects  whose individual parts are of mixed gender,  use at least one pronoun  of each gender:

OK	Either Jim or Helen will bring his car or her car.

X	Either Jim or Helen will bring her car.

OK	Either Jim will bring his car or Helen will bring hers.

See also:

Pronouns


Punctuation

Punctuation is the set of marks and symbols we use to group and separate ideas and change meaning in a sentence:

, --   The comma

. --   The period

; --   The semicolon

' --   The apostrophe

" --   The quotation mark

? --   The question mark

! --   The exclamation mark

: --   The colon

-- --  The dash

( ) -- Parentheses

... -- The Ellipsis

/ --   The slash


Apostrophes
Punctuation

Apostrophes

The apostrophe has two main uses: forming possessive nouns, and taking the place of omitted letters in contractions.

One use of the apostrophe that often causes confusion is the distinction between it's and its.

See also:

Possessive nouns

Contractions

It's vs. its


Colons
Punctuation

Colons

The colon introduces lists,  elaborations of ideas, and quotations.  It is also used in expressing times and in letter salutations.

The colon is always preceded by an independent clause  and never by a dependent clause.

X	You will need to bring: a toothbrush, a bathrobe, and slippers.

OK	You will need to bring a toothbrush, a bathrobe, and slippers.

OK	You will need to bring several things: a toothbrush, a bathrobe, and slippers.

X	A first-aid kit is essential in: the home, car, and office.

OK	A first-aid kit is essential in the home, car, and office.

OK	A first-aid kit is essential in many places: the home, car, and office.

X	My boss likes to say that: "When all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."

OK	My boss likes to say: "When all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."

OK	My boss likes to say that "When all you have is a hammer, everything looks like a nail."

Colons can be used to elaborate on a thought. Examples:

Our choice is clear: We must sell the division.

She handed me the letter from Jim: It was postmarked Tuesday.

One word describes how I feel: sorry.

The word following a colon may or may not be capitalized.

Typically, the word is capitalized if it is the beginning of an independent clause, and otherwise is not capitalized (see the preceding examples).

See also:

Lists

Expressing times

Quotation marks


Commas
Punctuation

Commas

Use commas

-	to separate items in a series (e.g., "one, two, and three");

-	to separate series of adjectives (e.g., "the bright, red ruby");

-	to separate independent clauses joined by conjunctions (e.g., "I wrote the letter, but I'm not proud of it");

-	to separate dependent clauses from independent clauses (e.g., "Although I asked her several times, she refused to reply");

-	to isolate introductory phrases (e.g., "The battle lost, he resigned");

-	to isolate descriptive clauses (e.g., "The concert, which was sold out, was excellent");

-	to isolate conjunctive adverbs (e.g., "Thus, the contract was renegotiated");

-	to isolate parenthetical phrases (e.g., "He tried, but not very hard, to raise the funds");

-	to join interdependent clauses (e.g., "The faster the printer, the higher the cost");

-	to substitute for omitted words (e.g., "Bill ate seven cobs; John, six");

-	to prevent confusion and ambiguity (e.g., "If you want to, go to Jane's house")

See also:

Quotation marks


Comma: Separating adjectives
Punctuation: Commas

Separating adjectives

Use commas to separate two or more adjectives that would otherwise be ambiguous or confusing. If the adjectives can be joined with "and" without altering the meaning or seeming awkward, separate them with commas:

He lifted the heavy, black hammer.

He doesn't get along with her quick, ambitious nature.

I still prefer my old manual typewriter.

(No comma needed)

Compound adjectives  must be joined by hyphens  to prevent ambiguity.

See also:

Commas

Adjectives

Hyphenating compound adjectives


Comma: Preventing ambiguity
Punctuation: Commas

Preventing ambiguity

Use a comma wherever necessary to avoid ambiguity,  even if this means breaking other rules.

X	Whatever you do do it well.

OK	Whatever you do, do it well.

X	He introduced me to a woman with a pronounced chin named Janet.

OK	He introduced me to a woman with a pronounced chin, named Janet.

X	To John David was a legend.

OK	To John, David was a legend.

See also:

Commas


Comma: Isolating conjunctive adverbs
Punctuation: Commas

Isolating conjunctive adverbs

Use commas to isolate conjunctive adverbs:

I am forced, therefore, to resign.

Moreover, the quality of the goods has been steadily degrading.

He did try to make amends, however.

See also:

Commas


Comma: Separating dependent and independent clauses
Punctuation: Commas

Separating dependent and independent clauses

Use commas to separate dependent clauses from independent clauses:

If I work overtime, I will have the document ready.

Because the nail was lost, the kingdom was lost.

I will call the airline, if you will pick up the tickets.

See also:

Commas

Dependent clauses

Independent clauses


Comma: Isolating descriptive clauses
Punctuation: Commas

Isolating descriptive clauses

Use commas to separate descriptive clauses from the rest of the sentence:

The meal, which was excellent, was eaten in silence.

The memo, addressed to all staff, announced the bad news.

The memo written by John Smith, vice-president of marketing, was distributed to all employees.

See also:

Commas

Descriptive clauses


Comma: Separating independent clauses
Punctuation: Commas

Separating independent clauses

Use commas to separate two or more independent clauses  which are joined by conjunctions:

OK	Three houses have been sold, and one is still for sale.

OK	The memo was written in Fred's usual style, but I understood it anyway.

If the conjunction  is omitted, a comma-splice error will result, unless the independent clause is short and parallel.

X	Three houses have been sold, one is still for sale.

X	The memo was written in Fred's usual style, I understood it anyway.

OK	I came, I saw, I conquered.

OK	I have asked you to improve your quality, I have asked you to show up on time, I have asked you not to take long lunches.

See also:

Commas

Conjunctions

Comma-splice errors

Independent clauses


Comma: Joining interdependent clauses
Punctuation: Commas

Joining interdependent clauses

Interdependent clauses are two clauses that rely on each other to complete a thought. Each interdependent clause is usually a dependent clause.

Use a comma to join two interdependent clauses:

The longer he stayed, the more angry he got.

The harder I try, the less I accomplish.

The sharper the grape, the sweeter the wine.

See also:

Commas

Clauses


Comma: Isolating introductory phrases
Punctuation: Commas

Isolating introductory phrases

Use a comma to separate introductory phrases from the main part of a sentence:

For example, the penguin lives in Antarctica.

Having thought the matter over, I have decided to accept your offer.

In December, the company's assets were frozen.

In this case, insert a new floppy diskette in the drive.

See also:

Commas

Phrases


Comma: Separating items in a series
Punctuation: Commas

Separating items in a series

Use commas to separate three or more items in a series. Place the comma after each item, even after the item that precedes the final conjunction:

Three people came: Terry, Tad, and Todd.

Computers are widely used for desktop publishing, word processing, and spreadsheet applications.

Two people came: Terry and Todd.

(Note that no comma is used.)

See also:

Commas

Conjunctions


Comma: Substituting for omitted words
Punctuation: Commas

Substituting for omitted words

Use commas in place of omitted words. This is frequently done to eliminate repetition:

Jim sold three boxes; Sandy, twelve; Lucy, eight; and Kim, five.

The first report was mediocre, the second, good, and the third, excellent.

In my day, literature was considered essential, mathematics, compulsory, and athletics, a mere pastime.

See also:

Commas


Comma: Isolating parenthetical phrases
Punctuation: Commas

Isolating parenthetical phrases

Use commas to separate parenthetical phrases, or asides, from the main part of a sentence:

The most important, and yet the least interesting, evidence was presented first.

The penguin, one of my favorite birds, lives in Antarctica.

Last, but not least, is the award for "best of show."

See also:

Commas


Comma: Splice error
Punctuation: Commas

Comma splice error

A comma-splice error results from joining two or more independent clauses  with a comma.

X	I wrote the memo yesterday, I wanted you to see it before you left.

X	I had lunch with him today, he seemed tense.

X	He tried to cut the grass, the lawnmower was broken.

Comma-splice errors can be corrected in three ways: by adding a conjunction,  by making each independent clause a separate sentence,  or by changing the commas to semicolons.

OK	I wrote the memo yesterday, because I wanted you to see it before you left.

(Conjunction  "because" added)

OK	I had lunch with him today. He seemed tense.

(Each independent clause  changed to a sentence.)

OK	He tried to cut the grass; the lawnmower was broken.

(Comma changed to semicolon.)

See also:

Commas

Semicolons

Conjunctions

Independent clauses


Dashes
Punctuation

Dashes

The dash isolates parenthetical words and phrases. It is sometimes used in place of parentheses or commas. Dashes are normally used to call attention to the parenthetical idea. Compare the emphasis in the following examples:

The project (which had been behind schedule) was canceled.

The project, which had been behind schedule, was canceled.

The project -- which had been behind schedule -- was canceled.

Dashes are more emphatic than commas and parentheses. The dash can sometimes be used in place of a comma to add emphasis:

I told her I wanted the summary today -- not tomorrow.

Investing in my venture offers short-term tax advantages today -- and long-term benefits tomorrow.

Dashes can also be used in place of colons, usually with greater emphasis:

Several items were missing -- money, jewelry, and credit cards.

I expect three things from employees -- commitment, sincerity, and quality.

We left the room in silence -- none of us could bear to watch her.

See also:

Commas

Parentheses

Colons


Ellipses
Punctuation

Ellipses

Use the ellipsis (...) to mark omitted words, breaks in thought, and pauses:

The report described our marketing strategy as "old fashioned and... obsolete."

My wagon was packed with my favorite toys, my teddy bear was secured under my arm, and I was heading out the door when... my mother announced the cookies were ready.

"Hmm..." he thought. "Something's not right about this place...."

The ellipsis is not normally used when the omitted words appear at the beginning or end of the quoted material:

OK	She said she was "a little surprised" by the proposal.

X	She said she was "...a little surprised..." by the proposal.

When the ellipsis is used at the end of a sentence,  it is followed by a period:

The last thing he remembered was a sharp pain at the back of his head....

See also:

Periods


Exclamations
Punctuation

Exclamations

The exclamation mark or point expresses strong emotions:

He told me the show ended tomorrow!

When I got there, the building was completely deserted!

Do not destroy your original diskette!

The exclamation mark is rarely used in formal writing but can add interest when used sparingly in fiction or informal writing.


Parentheses
Punctuation

Parentheses

Use parentheses to isolate nonessential or incidental words and phrases. Unlike commas and dashes, parentheses distract attention from the enclosed material, making it less important:

Press the "enter" key (located on the keyboard) to execute the command.

Ottawa (population 300,000) is the capital of Canada.

My supervisor (Ellen) told me to do it this way.

When a sentence  is entirely enclosed in parentheses, the punctuation which ends the sentence appears inside the parentheses. If any part of the sentence  appears outside the parentheses, place the ending punctuation outside the parentheses:

OK	One denizen of Antarctica is the penguin. (The penguin is my favorite bird.)

X	One denizen of Antarctica is the penguin. (The penguin is my favorite bird).

OK	One denizen of Antarctica is the penguin (my favorite bird).

X	One denizen of Antarctica is the penguin (my favorite bird.)

Always place parentheses which appear within a sentence before commas or other punctuation:

OK	One denizen of Antarctica is the penguin (my favorite bird), known for its distinctive black and white "tuxedo."

X	One denizen of Antarctica is the penguin, (my favorite bird) known for its distinctive black and white "tuxedo."

OK	Enter the following command (without the quotes): "logout"

X	Enter the following command: (without the quotes) "logout"

See also:

Punctuation

Commas

Dashes


Periods
Punctuation

Periods

The period marks the end of a sentence. The period is also used to indicate certain kinds of abbreviations:

The fiscal summary is included at the end of the report.

Company president John F. Smith has been a member of this organization for over twenty years.

The meeting started at 8:00 a.m. and lasted until noon.

When the last word of a sentence  is an abbreviation  requiring periods, use one period to end both the abbreviation and the sentence:

OK	The meeting started at 8:00 a.m.

X	The meeting started at 8:00 a.m..

See also:

Abbreviations

Sentences

Quotation marks


Questions
Punctuation

Questions

Question marks terminate sentences  that are direct questions:

Why did you return the merchandise?

When will you pay this invoice?

Don't use question marks with indirect questions:

X	I asked her why she returned the merchandise?

OK	I asked her why she returned the merchandise.

X	I asked when will the invoice be paid?

OK	I asked when will the invoice be paid.

See also:

Quotation marks


Quotes
Punctuation

Quotes

Quotation marks indicate direct quotations, which are words written or spoken by someone. Material contained in quotation marks must be the exact words spoken or written. If a complete sentence is quoted, the first word is capitalized; otherwise, it is not:

Richard told me he had "never been to university or any other jail."

Anne was fond of saying, "If it's not broken, break it first."

"Love" was a word we never spoke aloud.

Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.  Colons and semicolons always go outside:

"I've had enough," he said.

She asked how I had enjoyed my "vacation."

Gwen told me to bring "just a couple of things": food enough for six, a record player, and all my records.

Question marks go inside quotation marks if the question is part of the quotation. If the quotation is part of the question, place the question mark outside the quotation marks:

He asked, "When will supper be ready?"

(Question is part of the quotation)

Did he tell you about his "little adventure"?

(Quotation is part of the question)

When a quotation itself contains a quotation, surround the inner quotation with single quotation marks:

Helen said, "Remember what Dad told us: 'Be kind to dumb animals.'"

Quotation marks are also used with the titles of short works.

See also:

Periods

Commas

Colons

Semicolons

Question marks

Titles


Semicolons
Punctuation

Semicolons

Use the semicolon to separate independent clauses.  The semicolon acts like a weak period:

Herbert joined the company as a clerk in 1935; three years later, he was president.

Use a semicolon in place of a period when the two independent clauses  are closely related:

I asked if he could wait until next week; he agreed.

When items in a series or list  contain commas, the semicolon can be used as a separator:

The meeting was attended by Janice Clarkson, Accounting; Earl Thomas, Corporate Services; Ralph McBride, Engineering; and Margaret Thurlow, Payroll.

See also:

Independent clauses

Periods

Lists


Slashes
Punctuation

Slashes

The slash is normally used in legal writing to indicate an alternative, such as "and/or." These constructions are not generally used in formal writing.


Sentences

A sentence is a collection of words arranged to make a complete thought. Each sentence has a subject, which the sentence is about, and a predicate, which is an action or state relating to the subject. A sentence must express a complete thought. A sentence must make sense on its own:

X	When he was in school.

OK	I knew him when he was in school.

X	Christopher's father.

OK	The man who came to the door was Christopher's father.

Sentences are constructed from clauses. A sentence may have exactly one clause, or it may consist of several.

Sentences may be grouped to form paragraphs.

See also:

Subjects

Predicates

Clauses

Paragraphs


Clauses
Sentences

Clauses

A clause is a major part of a sentence. A clause contains a subject  and a predicate. There are two main types of clauses.

Independent clauses are complete thoughts and can stand alone as sentences.

Dependent clauses support independent clauses but cannot stand alone.

See also:

Sentences

Subjects

Predicates

Independent clauses

Dependent clauses


Dependent clauses
Sentences: Clauses

Dependent clauses

A dependent clause  cannot stand by itself. Dependent clauses  are usually introduced by conjunctions:

Because we were tired, we went to bed early.

("Because we were tired" is the dependent clause.)

To be complete, a sentence  must contain an independent clause;  the dependent clause  is optional.

A sentence  may contain several dependent clauses,  usually separated by commas:

Because we were tired, and had nothing to do, we went to bed early.

(Both "because we were tired" and "and had nothing to do" are dependent clauses.)

In sentences  containing more than one clause, the subject of each clause  should be the same or at least closely related:

X	I met Sandra at the party and the music was very loud.

This problem can be corrected by rewriting to use two sentences  or by rewriting so the same subject  is used throughout:

OK	I met Sandra at the party. The music at the party was very loud.

(Two sentences  are preferable since two distinct ideas are being expressed)

OK	I met Sandra at the party and I thought the music was very loud.

See also:

Clauses

Independent clauses

Sentences

Subjects

Conjunctions

Commas


Independent clauses
Sentences: Clauses

Independent clauses

An independent clause  can stand alone as a complete sentence:

We went to bed early because we were tired.

("We went to bed early" is the independent clause.)

I received your letter and opened it immediately.

("I received your letter" is the independent clause.)

A sentence  may contain several independent clauses,  joined by commas and conjunctions  or semicolons:

We went to bed early, yet we were not tired.

I wanted to mow the lawn, but the lawnmower was broken.

I called her yesterday; she was not at home.

A sentence  may contain an independent clause  and one or more dependent clauses:

We went to bed early because it was dark.

I received your letter, opened it, but didn't read it.

The wind howled through a mouse-sized hole in the door on the night of the great flood.

See also:

Sentences

Clauses

Dependent clauses

Commas

Semicolons

Conjunctions


Objects
Sentences

Objects

The object is the thing acted on by the subject, the thing on which the subject acts, or the condition of the subject:

John kicked the ball.

"Ball" is the object (the subject John acts on the object)

The ball hit John.

"Ball" is the object (the object acts on the subject  John)

John is happy.

"Happy" is the object (the object is the condition of the subject  John)

See also:

Subjects


Paragraphs
Sentences

Paragraphs

A paragraph is a collection of sentences, all of which contribute to a single theme. Each paragraph should have one -- and only one -- point to make.

See also:

Sentences

Writing effective paragraphs.


Phrases
Sentences

Phrases

A phrase is a collection of words that modifies or connects. A phrase does not contain both a subject  and a verb:

by the time

we will have

he had not

See also:

Subjects

Clauses

Verbs


Predicates
Sentences

Predicates

The predicate expresses action about or the condition of the subject  of a sentence  or clause.  The predicate contains a verb, object,  and modifiers such as adjectives  and adverbs:

I read the report yesterday.

(The predicate is "read the report yesterday.")

The black bear reared up on its hind paws.

(The predicate is "reared up on its hind paws.")

Because we were tired, we went to bed.

(The predicate of the independent clause is "went to bed." The predicate of the dependent clause  is "were tired.")

See also:

Sentences

Subjects

Clauses

Objects

Verbs

Adjectives

Adverbs


Subject
Sentences

Subject

The subject is the person, place, thing, or idea about which a sentence  or clause  is written:

We went to bed.

("We" is the subject.)

She wore the dress that she wore last week.

("She" is the subject.)

I don't like the new policies.

("I" is the subject.)

The subject of a sentence  is contained in the sentence's independent clause.

See also:

Sentences

Clauses


Active and passive verbs
Verbs

Active and passive verbs

Verbs  have an active and passive quality. Active verbs  "do":

run

write

inspect

prepare

Passive verbs  describe states of being and suggest no action:

be

am

is

are

was

were

being

been

Sentences  written with passive verbs become passive sentences.

See also:

Writing Style

Verbs


Lay vs. Lie
Verbs

Lay vs. lie

The distinction between "lay" and "lie" is subtle and sometimes confusing. "Lay" and "lie" are both verbs, but of different form.

"Lay" is always used as an action applied to some object. "Lay" describes the action of placing something down.

"Lie" describes the condition of being placed down.

Examples:

I lay the cards on the table.

("Lay" is an action applied to "cards.")

The cards lie on the table.

-- "Lie" describes the condition of "cards."

The past-tense  form of "lay" is "laid." The past-tense form of "lie" is "lay." This also causes confusion because of the similarity of spelling with the present tense  "lay."

X	I lie the cards on the table.

OK	I laid the cards on the table.

("Laid" is the past-tense form of "lay." "Laid" describes an action applied to "cards.")

X	The cards laid on the table.

OK	The cards lay on the table.

("Lay" is the past-tense form of "lie." "Lay" describes the condition of "cards.")

See also:

Verbs

Verb tense


Subject and verb agreement
Verbs

Subject and verb agreement

The subject  of a sentence  or clause  must agree in number with the verb  associated with it. For example, the following sentence  is incorrect:

X	The shipment were delivered to your warehouse.

The subject,  "shipment," is a singular noun,  and the verb, "were," refers to a plural noun.  The singular verb "was" must be substituted for "were" to correct the sentence:

OK	The shipment was delivered to your warehouse.

Most problems with subject  and verb agreement involve the choice between "is" or "are" and "was" or "were." Other verbs  may be incorrectly used as well. The rules for subject  and verb  agreement are simple:

1.	Use the singular  form of the verb  when the subject  is a singular noun. "Is" and "was" are singular verbs.

2.	Use the plural  form of the verb  when the subject  is a plural noun. "Are" and "were" are plural verbs.

See also:

Distinguishing the subject

Verb agreement with compound subjects

Verb agreement with collective subjects

Verb agreement with measured subjects

Verb agreement with words ending in 'ics'

Verb agreement with indefinite subjects

Verb agreement with problem subjects

Sentences

Clauses

Subjects

Verbs


Subject and verb agreement: Collective subjects
Verbs: Subject and verb agreement

Collective subjects

When the subject  of a sentence or clause  is a collective noun, such as "crowd" or "group," the subject is in fact singular,  since it refers to a single unit comprising several things. Use the singular form of the verb  in this case.

X	A group of anxious reporters were blocking the exit.

(The collective subject  "group" is singular.)

OK	A group of anxious reporters was blocking the exit.

X	Management are opposed to this approach.

("Management" is the singular collective subject.)

OK	Management is opposed to this approach.

X	The box of trophies were reported stolen.

("Box" is the singular  collective subject.)

OK	The box of trophies was reported stolen.

When individual members of a collective subject are identified, treat the subject  as plural :

OK	Several members of the audience were noisy.

X	Several members of the audience was noisy.

OK	The audience was quiet.

X	The audience were quiet.

See also:

Subjects

Verbs


Subject and verb agreement: Compound subjects
Verbs: Subject and verb agreement

Compound subjects

Compound subjects  joined by "and" are normally treated like plural subjects,  even if the individual parts are singular:

X	Your ticket and itinerary is ready.

OK	Your ticket and itinerary are ready.

X	That behavior and attitude is no longer tolerated.

OK	That behavior and attitude are no longer tolerated.

X	Both John and Mary is going.

OK	Both John and Mary are going.

When the conjunction  joining two parts of a compound subject  is "or" or "nor," the verb  must agree with the part closest to it:

Either the chairman or the members cancel the motion.

(The verb  "cancel" is closest to the plural  "members.")

Either the members or the chairman cancels the motion.

(The verb  "cancels" is closest to the singular  "chairman.")

Neither the cow, the pig, nor the chickens have been fed today.

(The verb  "have" is closest to the plural  "chickens.")

Neither the chickens, the pig, nor the cow has been fed today.

(The verb  "has" is closest to the singular  "cow.")

Neither Fred nor Sam was here today.

(The verb  "was" is associated with the singular  "Sam.")

When the subject contains the word "either," use the singular form of the verb.

X	Either Bill or Barb are going.

OK	Either Bill or Barb is going.

X	Either of us are going.

OK	Either of us is going.

X	Either person are capable.

OK	Either person is capable.

See also:

Subjects

Conjunctions

Verbs


Subject and verb agreement: Words ending in "ics"
Verbs: Subject and verb agreement

Words ending in "ics"

Words ending in "ics," such as "statistics," "mathematics," "graphics," "physics," and "politics," are normally treated as singular  collective nouns. When the word is preceded by an article (e.g., "a," "an," or "the") or a preposition  (e.g., "of"), or modified by an adjective, treat it as a plural noun.

X	Mathematics are my best subject.

OK	Mathematics is my best subject.

X	The graphics for your book design is ready.

("The" is an article.)

OK	The graphics for your book design are ready.

X	The physics of planetary motion is beyond my grasp.

OK	The physics of planetary motion are beyond my grasp.

See also:

Nouns

Articles

Prepositions

Adjectives

Verbs


Subject and verb agreement: Indefinite subjects
Verbs: Subject and verb agreement

Indefinite subjects

When the subject is an indefinite word such as "all," "most," or "some," the word referred to by the subject  determines whether the verb is singular  or plural. If the referenced word is plural  use the plural verb  form.

X	Most of the cars is on sale.

(The indefinite subject  "most" refers to the plural  "cars.")

OK	Most of the cars are on sale.

X	Most of the car were damaged.

("Most" refers to the singular  "car.")

OK	Most of the car was damaged.

X	None of the cars was damaged.

OK	None of the cars were damaged.

X	The majority of students has passed.

OK	The majority of students have passed.

X	Thirty-three percent of our customers wants better service.

OK	Thirty-three percent of our customers want better service.

When the subject is "one" in a phrase  like "one of the," the noun referred to by "one" is always plural,  so the verb  is plural.

X	One of the toasters is broken.

OK	One of the toasters are broken.

X	She is one of the people who works in my office.

OK	She is one of the people who work in my office.

See also:

Subjects

Verbs

Nouns


Subject and verb agreement: Measured subjects
Verbs: Subject and verb agreement

Measured subjects

A singular subject quantified by a measurement is treated as a singular,  so use the singular  form of the verb.

X	Eight feet of electrical cord are required.

("Cord" is the singular subject.)

OK	Eight feet of electrical cord is required.

X	The purchase price were three million dollars.

("Price" is the subject.)

OK	The purchase price was three million dollars.

If the subject is plural,  and the measurement specifies the number or quantity, use the plural  form of the verb.

X	Forty boxes of popcorn was sold.

("Boxes" is the plural subject.)

OK	Forty boxes of popcorn were sold.

X	Three million dollars was raised for the homeless.

("Dollars" is the plural subject.)

OK	Three million dollars were raised for the homeless.

Treat the fractional part of a singular subject as singular:

OK	Three-quarters of the pie is gone.

X	Three-quarters of the pie are gone.

Treat the fractional part of a collection consisting of more than one as plural :

OK	Three-quarters of the pies are gone.

X	Three-quarters of the pies is gone.

See also:

Subjects

Verbs


Subject and verb agreement: Distinguishing subjects
Verbs: Subject and verb agreement

Distinguishing subjects

The subject  is the "who" or "what" about which the sentence  or clause is written. Distinguishing the subject  of a sentence  or clause is important to knowing which form of verb  to use.

X	The main reason the report was delivered late are the people in the copy room.

("Reason" is the subject,  not "people.")

OK	The main reason the report was delivered late is the people in the copy room.

X	Snowstorms is the leading cause of employee lateness this month.

("Snowstorms" is the subject,  not "cause.")

OK	Snowstorms are the leading cause of employee lateness this month.

X	The interest we receive from our investments are a major source of income.

("Interest" is the subject,  not "investments.")

OK	The interest we receive from our investments is a major source of income.

X	Which one of the folders are being kept?

("One" is the subject,  not "folders.")

OK	Which one of the folders is being kept?

X	There was three men waiting to see me when I returned.

("Men" is the plural subject.)

OK	There were three men waiting to see me when I returned.

See also:

Subjects

Verbs


Problem subjects
Verbs: Subject and verb agreement

Problem subjects

Certain subjects  cause confusion because they seem singular  but are really plural,  or vice versa.

Nouns  which denote pairs are always treated as plural , and so take plural verbs :

X	The scissors is in the drawer.

OK	The scissors are in the drawer.

X	My pants is in the wash.

OK	My pants are in the wash.

Similar words for pairs:

reins	scales
shears	spectacles
tongs	trousers
tweezers	pliers
The pronoun  "you" is treated as plural,  even if it refers to a single person:

X	You is sitting in my chair.

OK	You are sitting in my chair.

See also:

Subjects

Verbs

Pronouns


Verb tense
Verbs

Verb tense

Verb  tense indicates when an action or state occurs over time. Verbs  can be expressed in three basic tenses: past, present, and future:

They agreed with the proposal.

("Agreed" is the past-tense verb)

They agree with the proposal.

(Present tense)

They will agree with the proposal.

(Future tense)

Usually, present-tense verbs are changed to the past tense by adding the suffix ed: "jump" becomes "jumped," for example. Some verbs have irregular past-tense forms, however.

Sentences  containing more than one clause  sometimes present a problem, since each clause  contains its own verb. Normally, all verbs  in a sentence are in the same tense. Exceptions exist, however.

When the verb  in the independent clause  is in the past tense, the verb  in a dependent clause is also usually in the past tense:

They said they agreed with the proposal.

(Both "said" and "agreed" are past-tense verbs)

He informed me he had written the letter weeks ago.

(Both "informed" and "had written" are past-tense verbs)

When the verb  in the independent clause is in the future tense, the verb  in a dependent clause is usually in the present tense. This is true because the independent clause verb places the time of the remainder of the sentence in the future:

They will say they agree with the proposal.

("Will say" is in the future tense, but "agree" is in the present tense)

When the verb  in the independent clause  is in the present tense, the verb  in a dependent clause can be in any tense, depending on the time ordering of actions:

We need a new projector because the one was have was broken.

("Need" is a present-tense verb, and "was" is past-tense)

We need a new projector because the one we have is broken.

(Both "need" and "is" are present-tense verbs)

We need a new projector because the one we have will break soon.

("Will break" is a future-tense verb)

See also:

Clauses

Verbs


Verbs

Irregular past-tense forms

Most verbs are written in the past tense by adding ed as a suffix: "call" and "called," "help" and "helped," "cook" and "cooked," etc.

Some verbs have irregular past-tense forms:

Present Tense	Past Tense
am	was
awake	awoke
beat	beat
become	became
begin	began
blow	blew
break	broke
bring	brought
burst	burst
catch	caught
choose	chose
come	came
cut	cut
dive	dived
do	did
draw	drew
drink	drank
drive	drove
eat	ate
fall	fell
fly	flew
forget	forgot
freeze	froze
get	got
give	gave
go	went
hang (a picture)	hung
hang (a person)	hanged
know	knew
lay	laid
lead	led
leave	left
lend	lent
let	let
lie (down)	lay
lie (tell a lie)	lied
lose	lost
ride	rode
ring	rang
rise	rose
run	ran
say	said
see	saw
send	sent
set	set
shake	shook
shine	shone
shrink	shrank
sing	sang
sit	sat
spring	sprang or sprung
steal	stole
swear	swore
swim	swam
swing	swung
take	took
teach	taught
tear	tore
tell	told
think	thought
throw	threw
understand	understood
wear	wore
weave	wove
weep	wept
wind (a spring)	wound
wring	wrung
write	wrote


Split infinitives
Verbs

Split infinitives

A split infinitive is an adverb  inserted between the word "to" and an infinitive verb:

I decided to quickly leave.

The split infinitive is considered weak by some people. The word "to" and the infinitive verb  really form a single unit. Inserting an adverb  between them makes them separate, so they lose their association.  Moving the adverb  following the infinitive verb  may be preferable:

I decided to leave quickly.

Note that moving the adverb  ahead of the word "to" results in ambiguity:

X	I decided quickly to leave.

(Does "quickly" apply to "decided" or to "leave"?)

Don't substitute "and" for "to" when forming infinitive verbs.

X	I will try and come if I have time.

OK	I will try to come if I have time.

See also:

Adverbs

Verbs


Participles
Verbs

Participles

Participles are verb  forms that usually end in "ed" (past tense) or "ing" (present tense).

A participle at the beginning of a sentence must have a noun  or pronoun subject  or a "dangling participle" results. To correct this condition, provide a subject for the participles.

X	Having opened the window, the room was noticeable cooler.

(The subject  of the participle "having" is missing, so the participle "dangles")

OK	Peter having opened the window, the room was noticeably cooler.

X	Noticing their poor performance, the stocks were sold.

OK	Noticing their poor performance, Wayne sold the stocks.

X	While skiing yesterday, my nose was frostbitten.

OK	While I was skiing yesterday, my nose was frostbitten.

The gerund also ends in "ing," but is really a verb transformed to a noun:

Her skating is excellent.

("Skating" is the gerund)

See also:

Subjects

Verbs


Ability, Capacity
Frequently confused words

Ability, Capacity

Ability means "is capable of doing."

Capacity means "is capable of holding or containing."

OK	I have the ability to reject your loan application.

(I am capable of rejecting)

X	I have the capacity to reject your loan application.

OK	Our new product has the ability to reduce your clean-up time by 20%.

(The product is capable of reducing)

OK	Our new product has the capacity to hold an entire weekend's worth of the average family's dirty dishes.

(The product is capable of holding)

OK	This hall has the capacity to seat 200 people.

(The hall is capable of containing)

X	This hall has the ability to seat 200 people.


Accept, Except
Frequently confused words

Accept, Except

Accept means "to receive."

Except means "to exclude."

OK	Will you accept my apologies?

(Will you receive)

X	Will you except my apologies?

OK	We will accept returned goods at the service counter.

(We will receive)

X	We will except returned goods at the service counter.

X	He brought everything he needed accept his toothbrush.

OK	He brought everything he needed except his toothbrush.

(His toothbrush was excluded)

OK	Everyone had a good time except me.

(I was excluded)

X	Everyone had a good time accept me.


Adapt, Adopt
Frequently confused words

Adapt, Adopt

Adapt means "to change" or "to become like."

Adopt means "to take charge of."

OK	The staff will have to adapt to the new policy.

(The staff will change their behavior)

X	The staff will have to adopt to the new policy.

OK	I tried to adapt her approach to my class, but it had no effect.

(I tried to make her approach suitable)

X	I tried to adapt her approach to my class, but it had no effect.

OK	Our quality assurance department has yet to adopt the new safety standards.

(Has yet to take charge of)

OK	Cheryl and I have decided to adopt a baby.

X	Cheryl and I have decided to adapt a baby.


Advice, Advise
Frequently confused words

Advice, Advise

Advice is a noun  meaning "constructive suggestion."

Advise is a verb  meaning "to offer a suggestion."

OK	I offered her my advice, but she wouldn't take it.

(I offered her my suggestion)

X	I offered her my advise, but she wouldn't take it.

OK	If you want my advice, sell your shares now.

(If you want my suggestion)

X	If you want my advise, sell your shares now.

X	I adviced her to look for a new job.

OK	I advised her to look for a new job.

(I offered a suggestion to her)

OK	I advise you to sell your shares now.

-- I offer a suggestion to you

X	I advice you to sell your shares now.


Affect, Effect
Frequently confused words

Affect, Effect

Affect is a verb  meaning "to change" or "to have an influence on."

Effect is a noun  meaning "result." It is also a verb  meaning "to bring about."

OK	A lack of sleep will affect your performance.

(Will influence)

X	A lack of sleep will effect your performance.

OK	Her concerns don't affect me.

(Her concerns have no influence on me.)

X	Her concerns don't effect me.

X	Her concerns have no affect on me.

OK	Her concerns have no effect on me.

(Have no result)

OK	This policy will have the effect of reducing employee turnover.

-- Will have the result

X	This policy will have the affect of reducing employee turnover.

OK	I was unable to effect appropriate change.

-- I was unable to bring about


All ready, Already
Frequently confused words

All ready, Already

All ready means "completely prepared."

Already means "previously."

OK	I'm all ready for the big game.

-- I'm completely prepared

X	I'm already for the big game.

OK	The report was all ready for review.

-- Completely ready for review

X	The report was already for review.

X	I all ready told you I was out last night.

OK	 I already told you I was out last night.

-- I previously told you

OK	When we got there, she was already gone.

-- She had left previously

X	When we got there, she was all ready gone.


Among, Between
Frequently confused words

Among, Between

Use among with several (more than two) people or things.

Use between with two people or things.

OK	The note was passed among the staff.

X	The note was passed between the staff.

OK	We should discuss this matter among ourselves.

OK	We enjoyed walking among the trees.

X	Among you and I, I think this new approach will cause problems.

OK	Between you and I, I think this new approach will cause problems.

OK	He placed the bird bath between the trees in his backyard.


Amoral, Immoral
Frequently confused words

Amoral, Immoral

Amoral means "having no concern for morality."

Immoral means "contrary to moral principles."

OK	She attempted to take an amoral view when making her decisions.

-- She attempted to ignore concern for morality

X	She attempted to take an immoral view when making her decisions.

OK	She regarded their teachings as immoral.

-- She regarded the teachings as contradictory to some moral principles.


Amount, Number
Frequently confused words

Amount, Number

Amount is used with things that cannot be counted.

Number is used with things that can be counted.

OK	The amount of paperwork generated by this office is simply staggering.

OK	Jeff has a greater amount of homework this year than last.

X	A large amount of people have made the same suggestion.

OK	A large number of people have made the same suggestion.

OK	A number of papers were missing from my desk.

X	An amount of papers were missing from my desk.


Anxious, Eager
Frequently confused words

Anxious, Eager

Anxious means "apprehensive about" or "dreading." Anxiety is a negative, unpleasant feeling.

Eager means "enthusiastic about."

OK	He was anxious about his exam results.

-- He was apprehensive

X	He was eager about his exam results.

OK	Waiting for your call made me anxious.

-- I was apprehensive

OK	I was eager to get home and try on my new suit.

-- I was looking forward to

X	I was anxious to get home and try on my new suit.

-- Anxiety is probably not what was felt.

OK	I'm eager to begin work tomorrow.

-- I am enthusiastic


Appraise, Apprise
Frequently confused words

Appraise, Apprise

Appraise means "to judge" or "to evaluate."

Apprise means "to inform."

OK	My ring was appraised at over $2,000.

X	My ring was apprised at over $2,000.

OK	We are all awaiting his appraisal of the economic situation.

-- We await his evaluation

X	We are all waiting for him to appraise us of the economic situation.

OK	We are all waiting for him to apprise us of the economic situation.

-- We wait for him to inform us

OK	Please apprise me of your attentions in this matter.

-- Please inform me

X	Please appraise me of your attentions in this matter.


As, Like
Frequently confused words

As, Like

As is a conjunction  meaning "in the way that."

Like is a preposition  meaning "similar to."

OK	I would help you as any friend would.

-- I would help you in the way that any friend would.

X	I would help you like any friend would.

OK	Ice cream tastes good as a dessert should.

-- Tastes good in the way that a dessert should.

X	Ice cream tastes good like a dessert should.

X	The sky looked as a blanket of stars.

OK	The sky looked like a blanket of stars.

-- The sky looked similar to a blanked of stars.

OK	His management style is like something from the dark ages.

-- His management style is similar to something from the dark ages.


Assume, Presume
Frequently confused words

Assume, Presume

Assume means "to accept without proof."

Presume means "to accept before proof is established."

OK	I assumed she would not return my book.

-- Though I had no proof, I believed

OK	For the purpose of estimating, I have assumed a stable economy.

-- My estimates are valid only if the economy is stable.

X	For the purpose of estimating, I have presumed a stable economy.

OK	I presume you will stay the weekend.

-- You haven't told me yet, but I have concluded you will stay

OK	Dr. Livingstone, I presume.

-- You haven't told me yet, but I believe I know who you are


Beside,Besides
Frequently confused words

Beside, Besides

Beside means "next to" or "along side of."

Besides means "in addition to."

OK	I parked my car beside yours.

-- Along side of

X	I parked my car besides yours.

OK	She sat beside Tom.

-- Next to

X	She sat besides Tom.

X	Beside Jan and Kelly, we'll invite Carol and Colleen.

OK	Besides Jan and Kelly, we'll invite Carol and Colleen.

-- In addition to Jan and Kelly

OK	He didn't want me there; besides, I couldn't make it.

-- In addition to the fact that he didn't want me there


Biannual, Biennial
Frequently confused words

Biannual, Biennial

Biannual means "twice a year."

Biennial means "once every two years."

OK	She was preparing the biannual report when I called.

-- She was preparing the six-month report

OK	The biennial parade will be held next month.

-- The parade held every two years.


Blatant, Flagrant
Frequently confused words

Blatant, Flagrant

Blatant means "offensively loud or noisy."

Flagrant means "outrageous behavior."

OK	This blatant racket coming from your room after midnight has got to stop.

X	This flagrant racket coming from your room after midnight has got to stop.

X	He was the victim of one of the most blatant cases of employee persecution I've ever witnessed.

OK	He was the victim of one of the most flagrant cases of employee persecution I've ever witnessed.


Born, Borne
Frequently confused words

Born, Borne

Born means "come into the world" or "become alive."

Borne means "to carry."

OK	I was born on the fourth of July.

X	You have born this workload for too long.

OK	You have borne this workload for too long.

X	I was borne on the fourth of July.


Breach, Breech
Frequently confused words

Breach, Breech

Breach means "to break" or "to neglect."

Breech means "the part of a gun behind the barrel."

OK	This action is a breach of our agreement.

X	This action is a breech of our agreement.

-- The action breaks our agreement.

OK	Holding the gun by the breech, he reluctantly placed it on the ground.

X	Holding the gun by the breach, he reluctantly placed it on the ground.


Can, May
Frequently confused words

Can, May

Can means "is able to."

May means "have permission to."

OK	She can prepare your tax form.

-- She is able to prepare

OK	Can I carry your suitcases?

-- Am I able to carry?

OK	If I may, I'd like another piece of pie.

-- If I have your permission

OK	May I carry your suitcases?

-- Do I have your permission?


Canvas, Canvass
Frequently confused words

Canvas, Canvass

Canvas is a heavy cloth material. It is sometimes used in connection with paintings.

Canvass means "to solicit."

OK	We secured the box to the truck with canvas straps.

X	We secured the box to the truck with canvass straps.

X	We have been going door-to-door, canvasing people's opinions on the new mayor.

OK	We have been going door-to-door, canvassing people's opinions on the new mayor.

-- Soliciting people's opinions


Cite, Sight, Site
Frequently confused words

Cite, Sight, Site

Cite means "quote" or "offer as proof."

Sight means "scene," "vision," or "view."

Site means "location."

OK	I cited three examples of overspending in my proposal.

X	I sited three examples of overspending in my proposal.

OK	I can cite two specific cases of her bravery.

X	I can sight two specific cases of her bravery.

X	This is the cite of our new office tower.

OK	This is the site of our new office tower.

OK	The view from my cabin window is a beautiful sight.

-- A beautiful scene or view

OK	My sight is failing me.

-- My vision is failing me.

X	My site is failing me.

X	They will build the new store on this sight.

OK	They will build the new store on this site.

-- They will build on this location.

X	They will build the new store on this cite.


Coarse, Course
Frequently confused words

Coarse, Course

Coarse means "rough" or "crude."

Course means "direction" or "plan."

OK	The fiber was too coarse to be comfortable.

-- Rough

X	The fiber was too course to be comfortable.

OK	I didn't have much time, so this estimate is only coarse.

-- Inexact or crude.

X	We'll change coarse and head toward the harbor.

OK	We'll change course and head toward the harbor.

OK	In 1990, he completed his course in psychology.


Complement, Compliment
Frequently confused words

Complement, Compliment

Complement means "to make complete."

Compliment means "to praise."

OK	This new vase will complement my collection.

X	This new vase will compliment my collection.

OK	His arrival will complement our sales staff.

X	My complements to the chef.

OK	She complimented me on my taste in clothes.

-- She praised me

X	She complemented me on my taste in clothes.

OK	My compliments to the chef.

-- My praises to the chef.


Comprise, Compose
Frequently confused words

Comprise, Compose

Comprise means "to contain" or "to  include."

Compose means "to make up" or "to constitute."

OK	The new handbook comprises all the existing employee-relations policies.

-- The handbook includes

X	The new handbook is comprised of all the existing employee-relations policies.

OK	The new handbook is composed of all the existing employee-relations policies.

-- The handbook is made from

OK	My department comprises all engineering staff.

-- My department contains

OK	My department is composed of engineers.

 -- My department constitutes


Continuous, Continual
Frequently confused words

Continuous, Continual

Continuous means "without interruption."

Continually means "recurring frequently" -- i.e., starting and stopping repeatedly.

OK	She's been working continuously since 8:00 a.m.

-- She's been working without stopping

X	She's been working continuously since last February.

OK	She's been working continually since last February.

OK	We drove continuously from Montreal to Toronto.

-- We drove nonstop.

X	The telephone has been ringing continuously since I arrived.

OK	The telephone has been ringing continually since I arrived.

-- The telephone has been ringing frequently

OK	I continually reminded him to pay attention.

-- I reminded him frequently

X	I continuously reminded him to pay attention.


Convince, Persuade
Frequently confused words

Convince, Persuade

Convince means "to cause someone to believe." Use convince with thoughts, beliefs, and ideas.

Persuade means "to cause someone to act." Use persuade with actions.

OK	She convinced me that I should come to the party.

-- She caused me to believe I should come to the party.

OK	I wasn't able to convince him that quitting was a drastic approach.

-- I wasn't able to cause him to believe

OK	She persuaded me to come to the party.

-- She caused me to come to the party

OK	I wasn't able to persuade him to stay at his job.

-- I wasn't able to cause him to stay


Credible, Creditable
Frequently confused words

Credible, Creditable

Credible means "believable."

Creditable means "honorable" or "praiseworthy."

OK	His story was credible.

-- His story was believable.

OK	Her credible testimony helped to sway the jury.

-- Her believable testimony

OK	She did a creditable job on the marketing study.

-- She did a praiseworthy job.

OK	She did a credible job on the marketing study.

-- She did a believable job.

OK	He has had a distinguished and creditable career with our firm.

-- He has had an honorable career.

X	He has had a distinguished and credible career with our firm.


Criteria, Criterion
Frequently confused words

Criteria, Criterion

Criteria is the plural  of criterion.

OK	Our proposal was accepted solely on the criterion of price.

-- Singular

X	Our proposal was accepted solely on the criteria of price.

OK	Apples are judged by the following criteria: color, shape, and skin quality.

-- Plural

X	Apples are judged by the following criterion: color, shape, and skin quality.


Decisive, Incisive
Frequently confused words

Decisive, Incisive

Decisive means "conclusive."

Incisive means "cutting" or "penetrating."

OK	The coroner's report on the cause of the accident was decisive.

-- The report was conclusive; it left no room for doubt.

OK	The coroner's report on the cause of the accident was incisive.

-- The report was thorough.

OK	She wrote an incisive report on weaknesses in our production system.

-- Her report was deep and knowledgeable of weaknesses existing within the production system.

OK	She wrote a decisive report on weaknesses in our production system.

-- Her report was conclusive.


Deduce, Deduct
Frequently confused words

Deduce, Deduct

Deduce means "to draw a conclusion."

Deduct means "to take away from" or "to subtract."

OK	He deduced that the butler did it.

-- He concluded

X	He deducted that the butler did it.

OK	I can only deduce that my chances of winning are small.

-- I can only conclude

X	Each week, your contribution to the pension plan is deduced from your paycheck.

OK	Each week, your contribution to the pension plan is deducted from your paycheck.

-- You contribution is subtracted

OK	If you buy four or more, we will deduct 10% from the total price.

-- Subtract 10%

X	If you buy four or more, we will deduce 10% from the total price.


Definite, Definitive
Frequently confused words

Definite, Definitive

Definite means "certain."

Definitive means "conclusive."

OK	I'm definite I don't want the job.

-- I certainly don't want the job.

X	I'm definitive I don't want the job.

OK	I heard a definite whisper behind the locked door.

-- What I heard was certainly a whisper.

X	I heard a definitive whisper behind the locked door.

OK	This report describes the definitive marketing approach.

-- The report is conclusive.

X	This report describes the definite marketing approach.

OK	He answered with a definitive "No!"

-- His answer was conclusive.


Delusion, Illusion
Frequently confused words

Delusion, Illusion

A delusion is a false belief.

Illusion means "deceptive appearance."

OK	At that point, we were still under the delusion that the product would be a success.

-- We still incorrectly believed

X	At that point, we were still under the illusion that the product would be a success.

OK	She thought he loved her, but it was a delusion.

-- It was a false belief.

X	She thought he loved her, but it was an illusion.

X	The sheets flapping in the wind created a ghostly delusion.

OK	The sheets flapping in the wind created a ghostly illusion.

-- The sheets created a deceptive appearance

OK	We thought he was actually accomplishing something, but it was only an illusion.

-- He created the appearance of accomplishing

X	We thought he was actually accomplishing something, but it was only an delusion.


Discreet, Discrete
Frequently confused words

Discreet, Discrete

Discreet means "prudent" or "with good judgment."

Discrete means "separate" or "distinct."

OK	I discreetly escorted her away from his office.

-- I prudently escorted her

X	I discretely escorted her away from his office.

OK	She was very discreet about the her job interview.

-- She was prudent about the interview.

X	She was very discrete about the her job interview.

X	I divided the sample into five discreet parts.

OK	I divided the sample into five discrete parts.

-- Five separate parts

OK	Each discrete department will have its own photocopier.

-- Each distinct department

X	Each discreet department will have its own photocopier.


Disinterested, Uninterested
Frequently confused words

Disinterested, Uninterested

Disinterested means "impartial" or "uninvolved."

Uninterested means "indifferent" or "bored."

OK	We called in a disinterested party to settle the disagreement.

-- We called in an impartial party.

X	We called in an uninterested party to settle the disagreement.

X	I was disinterested in listening to his stories yet again.

OK	I was uninterested in listening to his stories yet again.

-- I was bored or indifferent.


Elicit, Illicit
Frequently confused words

Elicit, Illicit

Elicit means "to extract" or "to evoke."

Illicit means "unlawful" or "improper."

OK	We sent them several letters, but could not elicit a response.

-- We could not evoke a response.

X	We sent them several letters, but could not illicit a response.

OK	I will meet with him privately to elicit his side of the story.

-- I will extract his side of the story.

X	I will meet with him privately to illicit his side of the story.

X	Several elicit drugs were discovered at the scene.

OK	Several illicit drugs were discovered at the scene.

-- Several illegal drugs

OK	They continued their illicit relationship throughout the summer.

-- Their improper relationship

X	They continued their elicit relationship throughout the summer.


Elusive, Illusive
Frequently confused words

Elusive, Illusive

Elusive means "confusing" or "difficult to grasp."

Illusive means "misleading" or "false."

OK	The poem had an elusive meaning.

-- The poem's meaning was difficult to grasp.

OK	He used an illusively clever trick to forge the signatures.

-- The trick was deceptive.

X	He used an elusively clever trick to forge the signatures.


Emigrate, Immigrate
Frequently confused words

Emigrate, Immigrate

Emigrate means "to leave the home country."

Immigrate means "to enter a new country."

OK	He emigrated from Poland to Canada.

-- He left Poland

X	He immigrated from Poland to Canada.

OK	He immigrated into Canada.

-- He entered Canada from another country.

X	He emigrated into Canada.


Eminent, Imminent
Frequently confused words

Eminent, Imminent

Eminent means "distinguished" or "prominent."

Imminent means "close at hand" or "impending."

OK	She is regarded as eminent in her field.

-- She is prominent in her field.

X	She is regarded as imminent in her field.

X	The staff prepared for the eminent takeover.

OK	The staff prepared for the imminent takeover.

-- The impending takeover


Ensure, Insure
Frequently confused words

Ensure, Insure

Ensure means "to take precautions."

Insure means "to purchase a contract for payment in the event of loss."

OK	We did everything we could to ensure the work was completed on time.

-- We took all precautions

X	We did everything we could to insure the work was completed on time.

X	We ensured the painting for $100,000.

OK	We insured the painting for $100,000.


Envelop, Envelope
Frequently confused words

Envelop, Envelope

Envelop is a verb  meaning "to surround."

Envelope is a noun  meaning "a paper container."

OK	We planted the hedge to envelop the garden.

-- The hedge surrounded the garden.

X	The envelop contained her final paycheck.

OK	The envelope contained her final paycheck.

X	We planted the hedge to envelope the garden.


Envious, Jealous
Frequently confused words

Envious, Jealous

Envious means "to desire something possessed by someone else."

Jealous means "suspicious about" or "overly protective of."

OK	She was envious of Gail's new coat.

-- She desired Gail's coat

OK	I envy your car.

-- I desire your car.

X	I'm envious of my position here.

OK	I'm jealous of my position here.

-- I'm protective of my position.

OK	Marg's flirting at the party made Rob jealous.

-- Rob was suspicious of his wife's intentions.


Explicit, Implicit
Frequently confused words

Explicit, Implicit

Explicit means "overt" or "clearly indicated."

Implicit means "understood" or "suggested," but not stated clearly.

OK	I explicitly told you to be here on time.

-- I told you clearly

OK	I implicitly told you to be here on time.

-- I suggested

OK	It was an explicit attempt to take control of our market.

-- It was an overt attempt

OK	There was thanks implicit in his expression.

-- Thanks was understood, but not stated

OK	An implicit benefit of the new policy is improvement in morale.

-- The benefit is present but not overtly stated

OK	An explicit benefit of the new policy is improvement in morale.

-- The benefit is clearly stated


Farther, Further
Frequently confused words

Farther, Further

Farther means "greater distance." The distance must be physical.

Further means "to a greater extent." Further is not used with physical distances.

OK	If we walk a little farther we'll come to a waterfall.

-- If we walk a greater distance

X	If we walk a little further we'll come to a waterfall.

OK	I can throw a ball farther than you can.

-- I can throw a greater distance.

X	I can throw a ball further than you can.

X	The project is farther behind than anyone expected it would be.

OK	The project is further behind than anyone expected it would be.

-- The project is behind to a greater extent

OK	This new product is further advanced technologically than any of our previous products.

-- Advanced to a greater extent

X	This new product is farther advanced technologically than any of our previous products.


Few, Less
Frequently confused words

Few, Less

Few is used with things that can be counted.

Less is used with amounts, or things that are not counted.

OK	Fewer people attended this year than last.

-- People can be counted

X	Less people attended this year than last.

OK	Fewer than half the cars in the parking lot are convertibles.

-- Cars can be counted

X	Fewer than half the sand in her sandbox came from the beach.

OK	Less money was collected this year than last.

-- Money is expressed as an amount

OK	Less than half the sand in her sandbox came from the beach.

-- Sand is expressed as an amount


Flair, Flare
Frequently confused words

Flair, Flare

Flair means "natural ability."

Flare means "outburst of flame."

OK	She has a flair for writing.

-- She has a natural ability

X	She has a flare for writing.

X	They fired a flair to alert the rescue ship.

OK	They fired a flare to alert the rescue ship.

OK	His temper flared whenever he saw her picture.

-- His temper rose quickly

X	His temper flaired whenever he saw her picture.


Hoard, Horde
Frequently confused words

Hoard, Horde

Hoard means "hidden treasure."

Horde means "large crowd."

OK	The squirrel was busy in our backyard, collecting its hoard of nuts for the winter.

-- The squirrel collected its treasure of nuts

X	The squirrel was busy in our backyard, collecting its horde of nuts for the winter.

X	The hoard of reporters swarmed the courthouse steps as he emerged.

OK	The horde of reporters swarmed the courthouse steps as he emerged.

-- The large crowd of reporters


Imply, Infer
Frequently confused words

Imply, Infer

Imply means "to suggest."

Infer means "to arrive at a conclusion."

OK	She implied she was looking for another job.

-- She suggested without actually saying so

OK	Your accusations imply I'm incompetent.

-- Your accusations suggest

X	Your accusations infer I'm incompetent.

X	From your accusations, I imply you believe I'm incompetent.

OK	I inferred she was looking for another job.

-- I drew a conclusion from other facts

OK	From your accusations, I infer you believe I'm incompetent.

-- I concluded from your accusations


Incredible, Incredulous
Frequently confused words

Incredible, Incredulous

Incredible means "unbelievable."

Incredulous means "disbelieving" or "skeptical."

OK	His story was incredible.

-- His story was unbelievable

OK	I heard his story, but was incredulous.

-- I was skeptical

X	His story was incredulous.


Its, It's
Frequently confused words

Its, It's

Its is a possessive pronoun  that stands for a thing which owns or possesses something.

It's is a contraction  for "it is."

OK	The boat snapped its moorings.

-- The boat "owns" the moorings.

X	The boat snapped it's moorings.

OK	The cat ate its dinner.

-- The cat "owns" the dinner.

X	The cat ate it's dinner.

X	Its going to be a long winter.

OK	It's going to be a long winter.

-- It is going to be a long winter.

OK	I tried writing to you, but it's not the same as speaking face to face.

-- It is not the same.

X	I tried writing to you, but its not the same as speaking face to face.

See also

Its vs. It's


Literally
Frequently confused words

Literally

Literally means "exactly as written." Don't use "literally" when you write a figure of speech.

X	Dad literally hit the roof when I told him about the car.

-- Literally is incorrect, unless Dad physically made contact with the roof.

OK	Dad practically hit the roof when I told him about the car.

X	My boss literally cut me to shreds during the performance review.

-- Literally is incorrect unless you required medical attention.

OK	My boss cut me to shreds during the performance review.


Ordinance, Ordnance
Frequently confused words

Ordinance, Ordnance

Ordinance means "rule" or "regulation."

Ordnance means "military equipment."

OK	The new civil ordinance prohibits parking on the street during winter months.

-- The new civil law

X	The soldiers loaded the ordinance onto the back of the transport.

OK	The soldiers loaded the ordnance onto the back of the transport.

-- The soldiers loaded the military equipment

X	The new civil ordnance prohibits parking on the street during winter months.


Passed, Past
Frequently confused words

Passed, Past

Passed is a past tense  form of the verb  "pass."

Past means "in a previous time" or "beyond."

OK	I passed him on the highway.

OK	They passed the exhibit among the jurors.

X	My office is just passed the photocopier.

OK	In the past, we might have tolerated this behavior.

-- In a previous time

OK	My office is just past the photocopier.

-- Beyond

X	I past him on the highway.


Peak, Peek
Frequently confused words

Peak, Peek

Peak means "top" or "highest point."

Peek means "a quick glance."

OK	The climbers hoped to reach the peak before nightfall.

-- The climbers hoped to reach the top of the mountain

X	I took a peak in the refrigerator to see what's for dessert.

OK	I took a peek in the refrigerator to see what's for dessert.

-- I took a quick glance

X	The climbers hoped to reach the peek before nightfall.


Peal, Peel
Frequently confused words

Peal, Peel

Peal is the sound made by a bell.

Peel when used as a noun,  means "skin of a fruit or vegetable." When used as a verb,  peel means "to remove the skin."

OK	The pealing of the bells signaled the start of the church service.

-- The sound of the bells

X	The peeling of the bells signaled the start of the church service.

X	I always peal apples before eating them.

OK	I always peel apples before eating them.

-- I always remove their skin. Peel is used as a verb.

OK	I like apples, but I don't like their peel.

-- I don't like their skin. Peel is used as a noun.


Principal, Principle
Frequently confused words

Principal, Principle

Principal means "most important." It can also mean "money borrowed."

Principle means "guiding idea."

OK	Mr. Brown is the principal of my school.

-- Most important; leader

X	Mr. Brown is the principle of my school.

OK	Our principal concern is with the design.

-- Most important

X	Our principle concern is with the design.

OK	Even after making mortgage payments for a whole year, we haven't reduced our principal.

X	Even after making mortgage payments for a whole year, we haven't reduced our principle.

X	The principal behind this policy is to reduce employee lateness.

OK	The principle behind this policy is to reduce employee lateness.

OK	His principles prevented him from joining the others.

X	His principals prevented him from joining the others.


Prostate, Prostrate
Frequently confused words

Prostate, Prostrate

Prostate is an organ in the male human body.

Prostrate means "lying flat" or "overcome."

OK	My grandfather has been having trouble with his prostate again.

-- My grandfather has been having trouble with his prostate organ.

X	My grandfather has been having trouble with his prostrate again.

X	His illness has kept him prostate all week.

OK	His illness has kept him prostrate all week.

-- His illness has kept him lying flat.

OK	He has been made prostrate by his tyrannical boss.

-- He has been overcome or made submissive.


Ravage, Ravish
Frequently confused words

Ravage, Ravish

Ravage means "to commit violent destruction."

Ravish means "to carry away" or "to rape."

OK	The storm ravaged the houses.

-- The storm violently damaged the houses.

OK	The Norman conquerors ravished the women of the village.

The conquerors raped the village women.

X	The storm ravished the houses.


Sensual, Sensuous
Frequently confused words

Sensual, Sensuous

Sensual means "base," "physical," or "sexual."

Sensuous means "of the senses." "Sensuous" is not necessarily related to sexual feelings.

OK	He was overly concerned with sensual pleasures.

OK	The cover of the book relied on sensual imagery to attract readers.

OK	A bath can be a sensuous delight.

OK	A visit to his garden was always a sensuous pleasure.


Stationary, Stationery
Frequently confused words

Stationary, Stationery

Stationary means "fixed" or "unmoving."

Stationery means "writing materials."

OK	The train engine had remained stationary in the museum for nearly 40 years.

-- The engine had not moved

X	The train engine had remained stationery in the museum for nearly 40 years.

X	I knew the letter was from her as soon as I saw the stationary.

OK	I knew the letter was from her as soon as I saw the stationery.

-- As soon as I saw the envelope or writing paper


Strategic, Tactical
Frequently confused words

Strategic, Tactical

Strategic means "overall plan," especially used in connection with war.

Tactical means "specific plan or action used to carry out a strategy."

OK	Their strategy was to deplete the enemy's supplies by attacking the supply lines.

-- Their overall plan

OK	One tactic they used was to attack the enemy encampment at night.

-- One specific plan they used to carry out the overall plan


Straight, Strait
Frequently confused words

Straight, Strait

Straight means "direct" or "uncurved."

Strait means "narrow passage of water."

OK	The arrow traveled straight to the target.

-- The arrow traveled in an uncurved line

OK	After the meeting, I went straight home.

-- I went directly home

X	After the meeting, I went strait home.

X	The boat made its way cautiously through the straight.

OK	The boat made its way cautiously through the strait.

-- The boat made its way through the passage


Their, There, They're
Frequently confused words

Their, There, They're

Their is a possessive pronoun  that refers to a plural noun.

There is a word that indicates location. It is also used sometimes to begin a sentence.

They're is a contraction  for "they are."

OK	Their furniture arrived today.

-- They own the furniture.

X	There furniture arrived today.

X	They're furniture arrived today.

OK	I wonder if they will miss their flight.

-- They "own" (are associated with) the flight.

X	I wonder if they will miss there flight.

X	Put it over their.

OK	Put it over there.

X	Put it over they're.

X	Their coming at seven.

OK	There are no cookies left.

X	Their are no cookies left.

OK	They're coming at seven.

-- They are coming.

X	There coming at seven.

OK	I called earlier, but they're not home.

-- They are not home.

X	I called earlier, but their not home.


To, Too, Two
Frequently confused words

To, Too, Two

To is a preposition  indicating direction.

Too means "excessive" or "also."

Two is the spelled-out form of the number "2."

OK	I spoke to her yesterday.

X	I spoke too her yesterday.

OK	Please send it to my attention.

X	He tried the porridge, but it was to hot.

X	He tried the porridge, but it was two hot.

OK	He tried the porridge, but it was too hot.

-- Excessive

OK	I, too, want to clear up this misunderstanding.

-- Also

OK	She wants to be invited, too.

-- Also

X	She wants to be invited, to.

OK	I've had two phone calls this morning.


Weather, Whether
Frequently confused words

Weather, Whether

Weather refers to atmospheric conditions, temperature, and so on.

Whether refers to a possibility.

OK	If the weather is nice, we'll go for a walk.

X	If the whether is nice, we'll go for a walk.

X	I haven't decided weather I'm coming tomorrow.

OK	I haven't decided whether I'm coming tomorrow.

OK	I'll go to the party whether she invites me or not.


Whose, Who's
Frequently confused words

Whose, Who's

Whose is a possessive pronoun  that stands for a person who owns or possesses something.

Who's is a contraction  for "who is" or "who has."

OK	Whose coat is this?

-- Who owns the coat?

X	Who's coat is this?

OK	I spoke to the man whose car was stolen.

-- The man owns the car.

X	I spoke to the man who's car was stolen.

X	Whose coming to the picnic?

OK	Who's coming to the picnic?

-- Who is coming?

OK	I tried to find someone who's got their own car.

-- Who has their own car.


Your, You're
Frequently confused words

Your, You're

Your is a possessive pronoun referring to "you."

You're is a contraction  for "you are."

OK	Your shirt is in the wash.

-- You own the shirt.

X	You're shirt is in the wash.

OK	Be on your best behavior.

-- You are responsible for the behavior.

X	Your sitting in my chair.

OK	You're sitting in my chair.

-- You are sitting.

OK	I called to ask if you're coming to the dance.

-- You are coming.


Writing
Writing style

"Writing style" refers to the qualities that distinguish interesting, effective, and clear writing from dull, ineffective writing. Topics include:

Organized writing: Organizing what you want to say to get your point across to the reader.

Writing clearly and directly: Choosing words and organizing thoughts to communicate clearly to the reader.

Using the active voice:  Choosing active verbs  to make sentences interesting. Also, help on rewriting passive sentences to use the active voice.

Writing effective sentences:  Organizing sentences  for maximum clarity.

Writing effective paragraphs: Organizing paragraphs to elaborate on a single, cohesive topic.

Writing letters: How to organize and write letters effectively. This topic includes sample letters for a variety of situations.


Active voice
Writing style

Active voice

In the active voice, the subject  does the acting. In the passive voice, the subject is acted on.

Using the active voice means choosing active verbs over passive verbs.  Passive verbs describe conditions and states of being.  Active verbs describe actions. Passive verbs  are flat, lifeless, and abstract. Active verbs  suggest action -- things moving and doing. Active-voice writing grabs the reader's interest. Compare the following sentences:

Passive:

The decision was made by the committee to ban smoking in public areas.

This study report will be written by our firm in September.

The game was won by the Toronto Maple Leafs.

Active:

The committee decided to ban smoking in public places.

Our firm will write the study report in September.

The Toronto Maple Leafs won the game.

To change passive sentences  to active sentences,  start by looking for passive verbs:

be	is
were	been
am	was
are
isn't	wasn't
weren't	aren't
If the sentence subject, is implied, make it explicit:

Implicit:

The invoice will be paid on the 30th.

(Who will pay the invoice?)

Explicit:

The invoice will be paid by our accounting department on the 30th.

Next, eliminate the passive verbs  by reorganizing the sentence.

Move the subject  to the beginning of the sentence:

Our accounting department will pay the invoice on the 30th.

More passive examples:

The meeting was chaired by Dr. Smith.

It is desired that this topic be added to the meeting agenda.

The discrepancy was reported on 15 July.

Rewritten in the active voice:

Dr. Smith chaired the meeting.

I would like you to add this topic to the meeting agenda.

I reported the discrepancy on 15 July.

See also:

Subjects

Explicit subjects

Verbs

Effective sentence beginnings


Clarity and directness
Writing style

Clarity and directness

Effective writing is always clear and direct. Writing clearly and effectively takes practice and concentration. Remember that we write to communicate. Writing that fails to communicate is ineffective.

Following three guidelines will make your writing clearer and more direct:

State the subject:  Make sure every sentence  has an explicit subject.

Use simple, direct words: Choose the right words.

Avoid ambiguities: Watch out for words and phrases that can be interpreted in more than one way.


Avoiding ambiguity
Writing style

Avoiding ambiguity

Watch out for words and phrases that the reader can interpret in more than one way.

The word "only" can often be placed nearly anywhere in a sentence,  and so is frequently misplaced:

Only I wanted an ice-cream cone.

I only wanted an ice-cream cone.

I wanted only an ice-cream cone.

Each example sentence  above has a different meaning, depending on the placement of "only." To avoid ambiguity, place "only" close to the word it modifies.

Generally, placing modifiers close to the words they modify avoids other kinds of ambiguity as well:

X	We sent a letter to the president requesting advice.

(What is requesting advice: the letter or the president?)

X	He introduced me to a man with a large mustache named George.

(What is named George: the man or the mustache?)

Reorganizing these sentences to place the modifiers  close to the terms they modify removes the ambiguity:

OK	We sent a letter requesting advice to the president.

OK	He introduced me to a man named George with a large mustache.


Stating the subject explicitly
Writing style

Stating the subject explicitly

Every sentence  should contain a subject,  represented as a noun  or pronoun.  Omitting the subject makes it difficult for the reader to tell who or what is involved. Business writing is especially vulnerable to this problem -- it is sometimes easier to omit the subject than to accept or delegate responsibility for an action:

The report will be prepared before the next meeting.

The reader cannot tell who will write the report. The writer may be accepting responsibility, may be directing the reader to do it, or may be reporting that some third party is responsible. Here is the same sentence  with subjects  added:

I will prepare the report before the next meeting.

You will prepare the report before the next meeting.

Sheila will prepare the report before the next meeting.

Notice that adding a subject  changed the sentence  to the active voice.

Sometimes writers omit the subject to make their writing more "tactful" by not pointing a finger of blame at a specific individual:

This invoice must be paid by the 14th or legal action will be taken.

The subjects  of both clauses are implied. The reader cannot tell who must pay the invoice, or who will take legal action. Rewriting makes the request courteous, clearer, and more direct:

We have written you several times about this unpaid invoice, Mrs. Nelson. Please pay the invoice by the 14th. If we do not receive payment by the 14th, we will engage a collection agency to obtain payment.

See also:

Subjects

Writing in the active voice


Choosing words
Writing style

Choosing words

Effective writing uses clear, plain, direct words. Remember that the goal of writing is to communicate, not to impress. Do not be lured into believing that only traditional, flowery words and phrases such as "notwithstanding," "at your earliest possible convenience," and "in compliance with your request" are necessary. Clear writing makes the best impression.

The table below lists some common overblown words and phrases and their simpler equivalents.

Come to the conclusion	conclude
Do not hesitate	please
Give consideration to	consider
Earliest possible convenience	soon
Give thought to	think
Implement	make
In compliance with your request	as you requested
In a position to	can
It would appear	appears
The reason is that	because
The reason is because	because
Make an adjustment	adjust
Place an order	order
Raise an objection	object
Utilize	use
There are hundreds of similar phrases and words.

Another key to writing clearly is this: Don't translate verbs  into nouns. Watch out for words ending in "tion," "ment," and "ful":

Construction of the building lasted two years.

New funding is required for establishment of this service.

Several employees are resentful of the new supervisor.

Rewrite to change these nouns  back to verbs:

We constructed the building in two years.

We require new funding to establish this service.

Several employees resent the new supervisor.

See also:

Nouns

Verbs


Effective sentences
Writing style

Effective sentences

Build effective sentences  using these principles:

Begin the sentence  with the subject.

Put the most important information at the end of the sentence.

Keep the sentence length  moderate.


Sentence beginnings
Writing style: Effective sentences

Sentence beginnings

Effective sentences  begin with the subject.  The reader learns immediately what the sentence is about. The writer also benefits, because stating the subject  forces you to keep your thoughts focused. Sentences  organized with the subject at the beginning tend to use the active voice.

Avoid beginning a sentence  with "there is" or "it is." They immediately place the sentence in the passive voice and obscure the real subject .

Weak:

It is probable that the document will be delivered by Friday.

There is a job vacancy in our department.

There are four stewards working on the shop floor.

Better:

We will probably deliver the document by Friday.

Our department has a job vacancy.

Four stewards work on the shop floor.

See also:

Subjects

Writing in the active voice


Sentence endings
Writing style: Effective sentences

Sentence endings

Place the most important information at the end of a sentence.

This increases the reader's expectations and makes the information more memorable.


Sentence length
Writing style: Effective sentences

Sentence length

Keep the sentence length moderate. The meaning of "moderate" varies with the intended audience:

Primary school	3 - 6 words
Grade school	5 - 10 words
Casual writing	10 - 20 words
Technical or highly advanced writing	20+ words
These numbers are averages. If you aim for "casual" writing, some of your sentences  may be seven words long, some may be 24 words long, but most will be ten to twenty words.

Varying the sentence length also makes the writing more interesting.


Writing letters
Writing style

Writing letters

Like most written work, an effective letter has an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.

The introduction should briefly state the purpose of the letter. The introduction may be a single sentence  or a short paragraph:

I would like to know the status of my order.

This letter is in reply to your letter of 14 April seeking employment with Acme Ball Bearings. Your resume has been forwarded to the manager of the quality control department.

The body elaborates on the introduction by providing facts. Use one paragraph  per topic:

I sent my order to you on 20 June. I have not yet received the merchandise. Your ad advised me to "allow 6 weeks for delivery," and six weeks have now passed.

Your qualifications meet the job requirements. Should we require an interview, we will contact you by telephone. In any event, we will retain your resume for six months.

The conclusion states what action is required of the recipient. In long letters, the conclusion may also summarize the facts presented in the body:

Please let me know when I can expect to receive my merchandise.

We will write you by 30 April to inform you of our decision.

See also:

Letter format

Salutations

Complimentary closing

You can also view some sample letters:

Request for information

Accepting an offer

Declining an offer

Reminding of an obligation

Demanding an obligation

Congratulations

Sympathy


Letter format
Writing style: Writing letters

Letter format

A letter in the standard block-letter format looks like this:

John Smith
123 Main St.
Anytown
99999

27 August 1999

Mary Jones
Manager
Acme Ball Bearings
456 Industry St.
Anytown
99999

Dear Ms. Jones:

Several weeks ago you asked me to let you know when it would be convenient for me to see you in New York about your firm's account.

I find that I shall be free all day on Thursday, 11 January, and will be delighted to meet you in your New York office at whatever time may be convenient to you.

I look forward with pleasure to meeting you.

Sincerely yours,

John Smith

JS:AB
cc: Jim Doe

Other formats are possible; feel free to design your own, provided it is not too unusual.

A letter should contain the sender's name and address so the recipient knows how to return the letter. If you don't use letterhead or personal stationery, place your name and address on the letter as shown in the sample above (the sender of the letter is "John Smith").

A letter should also contain the recipient's name and address so the recipient can tell the letter was directed to the right person. Include the recipient's title, if applicable. In the sample letter above, the recipient is "Mary Jones."

A letter should contain the date so the recipient knows when it was written.

A letter should be signed. A signature is something like a written handshake: it conveys trust and sincerity. Leave enough space on the page for the signature. Following the signature, include the sender's name.

If the letter is typed or entered by someone other than the sender, include the sender's initials and the typist's initials, separated by a colon.

If a copy of the letter will be sent to one or more third parties, include their names after a "cc:" (carbon copy) notation.

See also:

Writing letters

Dates and times

Salutations

Complimentary closing


Complimentary closing
Writing style: Writing letters

Complimentary closing

The complimentary closing introduces your signature. There are several complimentary closings in common use:

Yours truly

Yours very truly

Sincerely

Sincerely yours

Respectfully yours

Notice that only the first word is capitalized.

In modern letter writing, the complimentary closing is sometimes omitted.


Letter salutations
Writing style: Writing letters

Letter salutations

Salutations are the "Dear ..." terms that usually begin letters. The salutation you choose will depend on how well you know the recipient, whether you know the recipient's gender, and whether you know a female recipient's marital status.

If you are on friendly terms with the recipient, address them by their first name:

Dear John:

Dear Mary:

If you know the recipient's name, but are on formal terms with them, address them by title and last name:

Dear Mr. Jones:

Dear Dr. Smith:

Addressing a letter to a female recipient with whom you are on formal terms can be problematical. If you know her marital status, and you know she prefers to be addressed as "Mrs." or "Miss," address her that way. Otherwise, the safest approach is "Ms.":

Dear Mrs. Johnson:

Dear Miss Brown:

Dear Ms. Green:

Addressing a letter to an individual whose gender you don't know is also a problem. If you know their first name or initial, use it:

Dear Pat White:

Dear C. Kent:

If you know only their last name, use an ambiguous title:

Dear Mr./Ms. Clark:

You can use several approaches in addressing letters to unknown people in companies and organizations:

To whom it may concern:

To the Manager of Accounts Payable:

To the sweepstakes coordinator:

Dear Nabisco:

Addressing letters using "Dear Sirs" or "Gentlemen" is now considered sexist.


Sample letter: Accepting an offer
Writing style Writing letters

Sample letter: Accepting an offer

This letter accepts an offer made previously.

Dear ...:

I am pleased to accept your offer for the quality-control supervisor position in your firm.

As you requested, I am enclosing the signed offer and conflict-of-interest agreement.

I would like to change my starting date to one week after the date on which we agreed. I have not taken a vacation this year, and plan to spend a week relaxing with my family after leaving my current position. Please let me know if this cannot be done.

Thank you for making the offer. I am looking forward to my new position. Please reply as soon as possible regarding the change to my starting date.

Sincerely,

. . .


Sample letters: Congratulations
Writing style: Writing letters

Sample letter: Congratulations

This letter offers congratulations to the recipient.

Dear ...:

Congratulations on receiving the "Sales Professional of the Year" award! The award committee has made an excellent choice.

Over the past five years, I have become increasingly impressed with your enthusiasm for and commitment to your company and product line. Your dedication and effort have been a source of inspiration to me and the entire purchasing department.

Your award is well deserved. I wish you the best of luck in the coming sales year.

Yours truly,

. . .


Sample letters: Declining an offer
Writing style: Writing letters

Sample letter: Declining an offer

This letter declines an offer made previously.

Dear ...:

Thank you for offering me the position of quality-control supervisor with your firm. I must decline your offer, unfortunately.

At the time I sent my application to your firm, I also sent it to several other firms. Two other firms have also made an offer for employment, and I plan to accept one of them.

Thank you again for making the offer. Good luck in your search for someone to fill the position.

Yours truly,

. . .


Sample letters: Demanding an obligation
Writing style: Writing letters

Sample letter: Demanding an obligation

This letter demands that an unmet obligation be satisfied. Given its tone, this letter would probably be sent following several reminders and telephone calls.

Dear ...:

Please pay invoice 12345 immediately or we will take legal action against your firm.

We sent the invoice to your firm on 20 June -- 30 days ago. The invoice was clearly marked "Due on Receipt." I have written letters to you requesting payment on 2 July, 15 July, and 18 July. I telephoned you on 10 July and 18 July. We have not yet received payment.

This is the last time I will attempt to contact you. Unless you pay this invoice, further contact will be through our attorneys.

I remind you: Pay the invoice immediately or we will take legal action.

Yours,

. . .


Sample letters: Requesting information
Writing style: Writing letters

Sample letter: Requesting information

This letter asks the recipient to provide information.

Dear ...:

Please provide me with a copy of your magazine's submission guidelines.

I am a freelance writer and have been previously published in several magazines. I have an idea for an article I think may be suitable for your magazine. I want to ensure it meets your guidelines before I submit it.

Thank you for taking the time to provide the guidelines.

Yours truly,

. . .


Sample letters: Reminder of an obligation
Writing style: Writing letters

Sample letter: Reminder of an obligation

This letter reminds the recipient of an unmet obligation.

Dear ...:

I am writing to remind you about invoice 12345, which has not yet been paid.

In our telephone conversation on 20 June, you said you would pay the invoice by 30 June. We have not received your check.

We have done business together for the past five years. I would like my firm to continue doing business with yours.

Please pay the invoice immediately.

Sincerely,

. . .


Sample letters: Sympathy
Writing style: Writing letters

Sample letter: Sympathy

This letter offers sympathy to the recipient.

Dear ...:

I was saddened to hear of your father's death. Please allow me to offer my sincere condolences.

Although I did not know your father, I recall the several occasions when you had spoken of him warmly.

Again, my sympathy for your loss.

With condolences,

. . .


Organized writing
Writing style

Organized writing

Effective writing presents ideas to the reader in a well-organized manner. Complex ideas are presented slowly and carefully, building from simple ideas the reader already knows. In many ways, effective writing "sells" ideas to the reader -- the reader must be convinced to accept your ideas or point of view.

There are two standard approaches to writing organization:

Writing to inform: Explaining to, describing for, or instructing the reader.

Writing to persuade: Convincing the reader of your point of view.


Writing to inform
Writing style: Organized writing

Writing to inform

When writing to inform, explain, or describe, organize your writing as follows:

1. Define your subject: State what you are writing about in the introduction. Give the reader an overview of your theme.

2. Divide your subject into parts, and discuss each part thoroughly. If necessary, further divide the parts into subparts. Keep dividing until you can cover each simple idea in one paragraph.

Describe the simple ideas first. Describe the complex ideas in terms of the simple ideas. Show the relationship between each part and the entire subject.

3. Provide examples to clarify generalizations.

4. Briefly summarize what you have said.

See also:

Paragraphs


Writing to persuade
Writing style: Organized writing

Writing to persuade

When writing to convince the reader of something, there are two approaches: a logical appeal and an emotional appeal. The choice of approach depends on what you are trying to persuade the reader to do. Convincing the reader to donate to a charity may require an emotional appeal, while convincing the reader to purchase a product may require a logical appeal.

Both approaches can be used together. An appeal for a donation, for example, could describe the hunger of children to appeal to the reader's emotions, and explain how donated money will be used to build farms and schools to appeal to the reader's logic.

Organize your writing as follows when using a logical appeal:

1. Introduce your topic and state your position.

2. Consider the evidence that supports your view. Describe each point of evidence in a separate paragraph. At this point, just describe the evidence objectively.

3. Objectively consider the evidence contrary to your view. Describe each point of evidence in a separate paragraph.

4. Compare and contrast the evidence. Show how the evidence supports your point of view. Don't be afraid to concede some points in favor of the contrary view -- this adds credibility to your argument.

5. Conclude in favor of your view.

When writing an emotional appeal, use the following organization:

1. Introduce your topic and state your position.

2. Explain why accepting your view will make the reader feel better. Describe each benefit to the reader in a separate paragraph.

3. Conclude that the benefits you have described merit the reader's accepting your position.

See also:

Paragraphs


Writing effective paragraphs
Writing style

Writing effective paragraphs

A paragraph is a collection of sentences  relating to a single topic.

Each topic should have its own paragraph. Each paragraph should describe one topic.

There are two effective approaches to organizing sentences  within paragraphs. In the first approach, the first sentence  states the paragraph's central idea, and the remaining sentences  elaborate on it. This organization is appropriate in writing that explains or provides information:

A logo is a symbol or stylized lettering that captures the essence of who you are and what you offer. The best logos are simple but powerful. Recall the Texaco star, the handwritten look of the word Kellog's on cereal boxes, or the spinning globe of AT&T.

In the second approach, the last sentence states the paragraph's central idea. The preceding sentences  build up to the last sentence, possibly by justifying or explaining the last sentence's point of view. This approach is appropriate in writing that seeks to convince or justify:

Of the thousands of visitors who attend a show, only a small number are ready buyers, the people who are ready to buy now or in the near future.  One of the toughest problems facing you is to conserve your energy so you don't burn out before the end of the show. You must learn how to pick out from the crowds passing your booth those visitors who are potential buyers of your product and not just "lookers."

See also:

Paragraphs

Sentences


Reviewing
Writing style

Reviewing

Before releasing something you have written, review it critically to eliminate common errors and weaknesses. Effective, correct writing is not a guarantee of success, but weak, error-ridden writing is almost certainly a guarantee of failure.

First, make sure your writing is well organized. Check your writing from the reader's point of view. Are complex ideas carefully presented? Are paragraphs  and sentences organized effectively? Are new terms explained before they are used? Does each paragraph  discuss only one topic?

Next, ensure your writing is free from spelling errors and common punctuation errors. Use a spelling-checker program, even if your spelling is good. Look up in a dictionary each word the spelling checker reports -- don't rely on your memory, and don't assume the spelling checker has made a mistake. Consider all punctuation, especially commas, critically. Rewrite sentences  containing more than two or three clauses  separated by commas. It is better to use too few commas than too many -- when in doubt, leave it out.

Check your writing for use of the passive voice. Reducing or eliminating the passive verbs in your writing will go a long toward improving your writing.

Look for inconsistencies in your writing that may confuse the reader. Ensure that the same terms are used throughout your writing. Don't, for example, refer to "shareholders" in one place and "stockholders" in another. It is better to use a single term repeatedly than to continually introduce new terms. If your writing contains references to pages, chapters, sections, figures, or tables, make sure the references are correct. Finally, watch for wordy phrases that can be shortened or simplified. Say what you have to say in the fewest possible words. Watch for redundant phrases, such as "repeat again," "join together," and "final conclusion." Grammar-checking programs are helpful here.

See also:

Paragraphs

Sentences

Punctuation

Clauses

Organizing your writing

Writing in the active voice

Choosing words


Grammar Expert
Answer Finder

Click on the item that best describes the information you're looking for:

Help choosing between two similar words

Help with punctuation

Help writing dates and times

Help writing abbreviations

Help with personal titles like Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr., Rev., Ph.D., M.D., etc.

Help with writing numbers

Help with writing lists of things

Help with using capital letters

Help writing letters

Help writing clearly and effectively


Answer Finder

Help choosing between similar words

Click on the item that best describes the information you're looking for:

Help choosing between confusing words like accept and except or principal and principle

Help choosing between is and are, was and were, isn't and aren't, or wasn't and weren't

Help choosing between I and me, him and he, her and she, or them and they

Help choosing between its and it's

Help choosing between like and as

Help choosing between there and their

Help choosing between to and too

Help choosing between that and which

Help choosing between who and whom

Help choosing between you and yourself, him and himself, her and herself, or them and themselves

Help using past-tense forms of problem words like drink, hang, drive, shrink, or bring

Help choosing between lay and lie or lay and laid

Help using words like to, from, with, by, and for

Help using words like everyone or anyone


Answer Finder

Help choosing between confusing words

Click on the words you would like help with:

A

Ability, Capacity

Accept, Except

Adapt, Adopt

Advice, Advise

Affect, Effect

All ready, Already

Among, Between

Amoral, Immoral

Amount, Number

Anxious, Eager

Appraise, Apprise

As, Like

Assume, Presume

B

Beside, Besides

Between, Among

Biannual, Biennial

Blatant, Flagrant

Born, Borne

Breach, Breech

C

Can, May

Canvas, Canvass

Capacity, Ability

Cite, Site

Coarse, Course

Complement, Compliment

Comprise, Compose

Continuous, Continual

Convince, Persuade

Credible, Creditable

Criteria, Criterion

D

Decisive, Incisive

Deduce, Deduct

Definite, Definitive

Delusion, Illusion

Discreet, Discrete

Disinterested, Uninterested

E

Eager, Anxious

Effect, Affect

Elicit, Illicit

Elusive, Illusive

Emigrate, Immigrate

Eminent, Imminent

Ensure, Insure

Envelop, Envelope

Envious, Jealous

Except, Accept

Explicit, Implicit

F

Farther, Further

Few, Less

Flagrant, Blatant

Flair, Flare

H

Hoard, Horde

I

Illicit, Elicit

Illusion, Delusion

Illusive, Elusive

Immigrate, Emigrate

Imminent, Eminent

Immoral, Amoral

Implicit, Explicit

Imply, Infer

Incisive, Decisive

Incredible, Incredulous

Insure, Ensure

Its, It's

J

Jealous, Envious

L

Less, Few

Like, As

Literally

M

May, Can

N

Number, Amount

O

Ordinance, Ordnance

P

Passed, Past

Peak, Peek

Peal, Peel

Persuade, Convince

Presume, Assume

Principal, Principle

Prostate, Prostrate

R

Ravage, Ravish

S

Sensual, Sensuous

Site, Cite, Sight

Stationary, Stationery

Strategic, Tactical

Straight, Strait

T

Tactical, Strategic

Their, There, They're

To, Too, Two

U

Uninterested, Disinterested

W

Weather, Whether

Whose, Who's

Y

Your, You're


Answer Finder

Help with I and me, him and he, etc.

Click on the item that best suits the information you're looking for:

Help on using I/me, him/he, her/she, them/they in a sentence like "Jack is taller than X."

Help on using I/me, him/he, her/she, them/they in sentences like "Jack and X played baseball" or "The game was won by Jack and X."

Help on using I/me, him/he, her/she, them/they in a sentence like "It was X who called."


Answer Finder

Help with punctuation

Click on the item that best describes the information you're looking for:

Help with using commas (,)

Help with using colons (:)

Help with using semicolons (;)

Help with using parentheses ( )

Help with using quotation marks (" ")

Help with other punctuation marks


Answer Finder

Help with writing personal titles

Click on the item that best describes the information you're looking for:

Help writing personal titles

Help writing personal titles for two or more people

Help writing personal titles in letters


Table of contents
Grammar Expert

Table of Contents

Grammar Expert contains information on the following topics:

Sentences  -- collections of words used to express ideas.

Parts of speech  -- the role each word plays in a sentence.

Punctuation  -- a set of marks placed in sentences  to separate or clarify intent or meaning: . , ; ! ? "

Mechanics of writing  -- the correct ways to express things like abbreviations,  numbers, and dates.

Writing style  -- the application of grammatical rules to express ideas effectively.

Problem words  help with frequently confused words such as "accept" and "except," "like" and "as," etc.

See also:

Detailed table of contents

About Grammar Expert

Tips on using Grammar Expert

Ordering Grammar Expert

Grammar Expert 2.11
Copyright 1996 by Wintertree Software Inc.


Detailed Table of Contents

Sentences

Clauses

Dependent Clauses

Independent Clauses

Objects

Paragraphs

Phrases

Predicates

Subjects

Parts of Speech

Adjectives

Comparative Adjectives

Good vs. Well

Superlative Adjectives

Adverbs

Comparative Adverbs

Superlative Adverbs

Articles

Conjunctions

Interjections

Nouns

Plural Nouns

Possessive Nouns

Proper Nouns

Prepositions

Pronouns

Pronoun Case

Pronouns following Comparisons

Compound Pronouns

Its vs. It's

Plural Pronouns

Possessive Pronouns

Yourself and Myself

That vs. Which

Pronouns following the Verb "To Be"

Whose vs. "Of Which"

Who vs. Whom

Pronoun Gender

Verbs

Active and Passive Verbs

Lay vs. Lie

Subject and Verb Agreement

Verb Agreement with Collective Subjects

Verb Agreement with Compound Subjects

Verb Agreement with "ics" Words

Verb Agreement with Indefinite Subjects

Verb Agreement with Measured Subjects

Distinguishing the Subject

Verb Agreement with Problem Subjects

Verb Tense

Irregular past-tense forms

Split Infinitives

Participles

Punctuation

Apostrophes

Colons

Commas

Separating Adjectives

Preventing Ambiguity

Isolating Conjunctive Adverbs

Separating Dependent and Independent Clauses

Isolating Descriptive Clauses

Separating Independent Clauses

Joining Interdependent Clauses

Isolating Introductory Phrases

Separating Items in a Series

Substituting for Omitted Words

Isolating Parenthetical Phrases

Comma-Splice Error

Dashes

Ellipses

Exclamations

Parentheses

Periods

Question Marks

Quotation Marks

Semicolons

Slashes

Mechanics of Writing

Abbreviations

Acronyms

Contractions

Abbreviating Dates and Times

Initialisms

Abbreviations for Latin Phrases

Abbreviations for Measures

Abbreviating Organization Names

Plural Abbreviations

Possessive Abbreviations

Abbreviating Degrees and Titles

Capitalization

Dates and Times

Hyphenating Words

Hyphenating Adverbs and Adjectives

Hyphenating Compound Adjectives

Hyphenating Compound Nouns

Breaking Long Words

Hyphenating Numbers

Hyphenating Prefixes

Lists

Numbers

Titles

Writing Style

Active Voice

Clarity and Directness

Avoiding Ambiguity

Explicit Subjects

Choosing Words

Effective Sentences

Sentence Beginnings

Sentence Endings

Sentence Length

Writing Letters

Letter Format

Complimentary Closing

Salutations

Sample Letter: Accepting an Offer

Sample Letter: Congratulations

Sample Letter: Declining an Offer

Sample Letter: Demanding an Obligation

Sample Letter: Requesting Information

Sample Letter: Reminder of an Obligation

Sample Letter: Sympathy

Organized Writing

Writing to Inform

Writing to Persuade

Writing Effective Paragraphs

Reviewing


About Grammar Expert

Grammar Expert is an online, hypertext reference book for the rules of English grammar, punctuation, and effective writing. Grammar Expert contains practical answers, guidelines, and advice on thousands of grammar-related points for business, writers, students, and people learning English as a second language. Use Grammar Expert's online index and table of contents to locate the information you need quickly. Grammar Expert explains the grammatical rules involved and provides plenty of examples.

Imagine you had to build a house yourself, but were unsure of your carpentry and other essential house-building skills. Would you build the house anyway, then ask a house inspector to point out all the mistakes you made so you could repair them? Probably not. You'd acquire the necessary skills before you picked up a hammer, and keep helpful reference materials, such as plans and "how to" guides, handy as you worked. You'd work hard to make sure the house was built right the first time. Yet many people do just the opposite when they write. They put down words with only a vague idea of the rules, and rely on grammar checkers to point out mistakes.

Grammar Expert isn't a grammar checker. Grammar Expert won't scan your writing to tell you where you may have made a mistake. Grammar Expert is intended to be used while you write, so the words you type into your word processor, text editor, or e-mail application are correct from the start. Doing it right the first time takes more effort and initiative on your part than falling back on a grammar checker, but the results -- improvement and increased confidence in your writing skills -- will be worth the effort.

Grammar Expert contains hundreds of topics on grammar, punctuation, word usage, and effective writing. You'll get the most out of Grammar Expert if you keep it easily accessible while you write, as a Program Manager icon or desktop icon in Windows 95.

We recommend that you spend some time flipping through Grammar Expert's "pages" to become familiar with the kinds of topics Grammar Expert can provide help on. Use the Contents page (click on the Contents button) to locate a particular topic of interest. Use the Index (click on the Search button) to locate topics related to a specific term. Use the Answer Finder (click on the Answer Finder button) to questions frequently asked. You can also read some tips for using Grammar Expert effectively.

See also:

References


Tips on using Grammar Expert

Here are some tips for getting the most out of Grammar Expert:

Use the Search button: Grammar Expert's index contains words associated with topics people often find confusing. For example, if you are unsure about whether to use "is" or "are" in a sentence, try searching for "is" or "are."

Place bookmarks on pages you find useful: Once you have looked up a particular page in Grammar Expert, chances are you will want to return to it later. If you place a bookmark on the page, you can quickly jump to it next time. To mark a page:

1.	Select the Bookmark|Define menu item.

2.	Edit the Bookmark Name field if you want to give the bookmark a name that will help you to find it later.

3.	Select the OK button to save the bookmark.

You can move quickly to a bookmarked page using this procedure:

1.	Select the Bookmark menu.

2.	Select one of the bookmarks listed as menu items.

Add notes to pages: You may find it useful to add your own comments to Grammar Expert's pages. For example, you may want to add examples from your own writing to a particular topic. To annotate a Grammar Expert page:

1.	Select the Edit|Annotate menu item.

2.	Type in the comment you want to add to the page.

3.	Select the Save button.

Once you have annotated a page, a small paper clip will appear in the upper-left corner. To view your notes, click the mouse on the paper clip.

Keep Grammar Expert on top: While writing with a word processor, you may find it helpful to keep Grammar Expert's window on top of your word processor's window. To force Grammar Expert to stay on top of your other windows, select the Options|Keep Help on Top menu item. To turn this feature off, select Options|Keep Help on Top again.


Grammar Expert

References

The following books were consulted during the preparation of Grammar Expert:

Baugh, L. Sue, Essentials of English Grammar, Passport Books, Lincolnwood, IL

Freeman, Morton S., A Handbook of Problem Words & Phrases, iSi Press, Philadelphia, PA.

Lewis, Norman, Better English, Dell, New York, NY.

Montgomery, Michael and Stratton, John, The Writer's Hotline Handbook, New American Library, New York, NY.

Northey, Margaret, Making Sense: A Student's Guide to Writing and Style, Oxford University Press, Toronto, Ont.

Opdycke, John B., Harper's English Grammar, Harper and Row, New York, NY.

Rosen, Leonard, The Everyday English Handbook, Dell, New York, NY.

Struck, William and White, E.B., The Elements of Style, Macmillan Publishing, New York, NY.

Tracz, Richard Francis, Dr. Grammar's Writes from Wrongs, Vintage Books, New York, NY.

Waldhorn, Arthur, and Zeiger, Arthur, English Made Simple, Doubleday, New York, NY.

Webster's Dictionary of the English Language, Lexicon Publications, New York, NY.


How to order Grammar Expert

Wintertree Software permits you to evaluate Grammar Expert for a period of 30 days. When the 30 days have expired, you must either order Grammar Expert or destroy your evaluation copy.

You can order Grammar Expert for just $19.95 (US) ($24.95 Cdn). Instructions for ordering are provided below.

If you use Grammar Expert within an organization (e.g., a company), one copy must be purchased for each person who uses it. Site licenses are available; please contact Wintertree Software for more information.

You can order Grammar Expert in two ways:

1. By phone, using a credit card.

2. By mail.

Ordering by Phone

You can order your copy of Grammar Expert with MC, Visa, Amex, or Discover from the Public (software) Library by calling 1-800-2424-PsL or (713) 524-6394. You can also order by sending a FAX to (713) 524-6398, or by sending CompuServe EMail to 71355,470. NOTE: These numbers are for orders only! Any questions about the status of your order, registration options, product details, technical support, volume discounts, dealer pricing, site licenses, etc. must be directed to Wintertree Software Inc. at (613) 825-6271.

When you order by phone, PsL will notify us the day of your order and we will ship the product directly to you.

Ordering by Mail

Via check or money order: Click on Order Form to display an order form you can print out. Fill in the order form and send it with a check or money order for the total amount indicated to:

Wintertree Software Inc.
Attn: Order Dept.
69 Beddington Ave.
Nepean, Ontario
Canada K2J 3N4

We accept checks drawn on a US or Canadian bank. We also accept international money orders.

Via credit card: Click on Order Form to display an order form you can print out. Fill in the order form and send it to:

PsL
P.O. Box 35705
Houston, TX
USA 77235-5705


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Phone: 613-825-6271

FAX: 613-825-5521

Email: wsi@fox.nstn.ca

WWW: http://fox.nstn.ca/~wsi

Mailing address:

Wintertree Software Inc.
69 Beddington Ave.
Nepean, Ontario
Canada K2J 3N4